BEGC132 Selections From Indian Writing Cultural Diversity Text Book
Block 1
Plurality and Cultural Diversity
UNIT 1
‘Propositions’ by Sujit Mukherjee 5
UNIT 2
‘The Mad Lover’ by Sisir Kumar Das 17
UNIT 3
Bhakti and Sufi Movements in Medieval India 28
UNIT 4
Baul Gaan, Akka Mahadevi and Meerabai 41
COURSE INTRODUCTION
The course will take up writing by Indian writers both in English and in translation
which will give learners the opportunity to access the thoughts and work of
regional writers as well. It will cover a variety of genres like criticism, stories
and poetry while addressing highly relevant issuessuch asthe politics of language,
writing about/from marginalised groups/communities and women’s perspectives.
It envisages the opening of a window through which learners can glimpse the
rich legacy of the Bhakti and Sufi movements and journey into the modern world
asthey read representative writing from living authors with a contemporary world
view. The course will study writers and critics like Sujit Mukherjee, Sisir Kumar
Das,AmritRai, MK Naik, Nabanita Deb Sen, Tillotamma Mishra, Eleanor Zelliot,
Bulleh Shah, Akka Mahadevi, Meera, Raghuvir Sahay, Ayyappa Paniker,
Kynphem Sing Nongkynrih, N.T. Rajkumar, Lakshmi Kannan, Pudhumaipithan,
Indira Sant and Naseem Shafaie
BLOCK I PLURALITY AND CULTURAL DIVERSITY
This Block deals with the need to develop a new methodology to write Indian
literary history that takesinto account the multiple Indian languages, their literary
traditions and their mutual influence on one another. It will make the learner
aware that there isthe running undercurrent of one single Indian literary tradition
among all these different Indian languages and literatures. An illustration is the
two distinct Movements- the Bhakti and the Sufi movements of the pre medieval
and medieval periods which are very similar in their approach to God. This
observation is underscored by three samples of devotional songs from medieval
Indian poetry – one from Bengal, another from Karnataka and the third from
Rajasthan
Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 Analysis of the Points Listed in the Introduction
1.2 About the Author, Sujit Mukherjee
1.3 Some Excerpts from Sujit Mukherjee’s ‘Propositions’
1.4 The Need for a New Methodology to write Indian Literary History
1.4.1 Textual Analysis
1.5 Let Us Sum Up
1.6 Aids to Activities
1.7 Glossary
1.8 Unit End Questions
1.9 References and Suggested Reading
1.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, you will be able to
understand why Sujit Mukherjee wants a new methodology to write Indian
literary history
learn about his new methodology, taking into account the numerous Indian
languages, their literary traditions and the multiple mutual influences of
Indian languages on one another
discover the running undercurrent of one single Indian literary culture among
different Indian languages and literatures
Words in bold are explained in the Glossary
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Eminent scholars and commentators have criticized the step motherly treatment
given to Indian literary studies and traditions vis-à-vis Western literature and
culture in our universities and have attributed this lapse to four reasons:
1) The colonial hangover resulting in love for western culture and a continuation
of English studies to the neglect of studies in Indian culture and literature.
2) The emphasis on ‘modernity’ that has diminished the importance of Indian
literature which is mistakenly viewed as an ancient tradition and therefore
anti-modern.
3) The advent of print technology that has privileged written texts over the
rich Indian oral literary traditions that include folk and tribal literature
4) The application of Western literary canons that is not wholly applicable to
Indian literary tradition
While there is a lot of merit and value in what has been said in defense of Indian
literary and cultural traditions, all of it needs to be toned down with a more
catholic and liberal approach in tune with the distinctive Indian culture of
pluralism. It is not true that all that is modern and western is unacceptable and all
that is past and indigenousis glorious and exotic. Each hasits distinctive tradition
and a parallelstudy of the two traditions can enrich and broaden our understanding
without necessarily giving one more importance than the other. Our Universities
seem to be more in agreement with Kipling’s famous phrase:
“Oh, East is East, and West is West, and never the twain shall meet…”
The solution to root out this perceived bias and discrimination in favour of western
tradition as against Indian tradition does not lie in ‘either/or’ but in ‘and’. It has
to be inclusive.
Further, oral tradition and written texts are two distinctive genres. When you
hear the word ‘literature,’ we usually associate it with books i.e., the written
word. Before writing was developed, people still told stories and passed them on
from generation to generation through oral storytelling traditions. Many classics
of world literature, from The Iliad (the ancient Greek epic) to The Ramayana
and The Mahabharata,(the classical Indian epics) were passed down orally before
being written down. The earlier process of transmitting the epics orally from one
generation to the next is known as the oral tradition. The oral literary tradition
has survived many ages and is today preserved as written texts in multiple forms
and languages. This is again another instance where two distinct genres enrich
each other. Valmikis’ Ramayana in the oral tradition is as inspiring and poignant
as Tulsidas’ Ramcharitmanas composed in Hindi/Awadhi and Rajagopalachari’s
Ramayana, written in modern English. Today we have not one, but many
Ramayanas, each with its own cultural context and frames of reference. There
are many great poets such as Kamban, Kritibhasa,Tulsidas and Eknath, to name
a few, who have composed and retold the story of the Ramayana in their own
language with examples drawn from local cultures and embellishing the story
with interesting local flavours, all the while paying homage to Valmiki as the
adi kavi,(the first poet) and also feeling free to create on their own. This is how
oral tradition has been continuously nurtured in Indian society and its tradition
preserved in written texts.
What is meant by Western literary canon? The Western canon is the body of
Western literature besides Western classical music and works of art that represent
high culture. ‘High culture’ in the Western context means the set of cultural
products – both literary and artistic – held in the highest esteem by the literate and
aristocratic classes of Europe and North America. Broadly speaking, it represents
a certain Western intellectual tradition that continuesfrom ancient classical times
to the present. High culture refers to the tastes and preferences of the elite of
Activity 1
How many versions of the Ramayana/Mahabharata have you come across
in the written/oral/performative forms? Do you notice any changes from
the original story? Make a note of what you think are different whether in
terms of characterization or narrative.
society in contrast to that of popular culture that has a mass appeal. The word
‘canon’ is derived from ancient Greek kanSn, meaning a measuring rod, or
standard and is applied as a test to judge the quality of any literary work. Since
our tradition and culture are different from that of the West, it is infeasible to
apply Western canons to understand and assess Indian literature.
Sujit Mukherjee’s essay ‘Propositions’ is an attempt to write a different kind of
literary history other than the chronological narrative of English /Western
literature, to sensitize the reader to the difference between the two distinctive
literary traditions and find a new methodology to write Indian literary history.
Activity 2
How do you differentiate high culture from popular culture in India? Give
two examples from each one of them
1.2 ABOUT THE AUTHOR, SUJIT MUKHERJEE
Sujit Mukherjee (1930-2003) was a writer,
critic, publisher and translator. While his
academic writing is mainly in the area of Indian
literary history and translation, his non academic
writing includes six books on cricket, the most
widely known being the Autobiography of an
Unknown Cricketer. This book captures the
romance of cricket played in unknown places
and gives us an idea of what it meant to lay the
foundation of a sport which has grown into one
of the most popular games in the country. He
has translated books from Bangla into English
that include Tagore’s Gora and Buddhadeva
Bose’s Mahabharater Katha which he titles The Book of Yudishter. As a critic,
his two works on Translation as Discovery and Translation as Recovery need
special mention. His other books are The Tradition of Anglo-Indian Fiction and
Towards a Literary History of India . The best tribute to Sujit’s qualities of head
and heart is in the form of a quotation from his students in Australia – the
Goonaratnes – and quoted by Prof.Sachidananad Murthy :
… they told me you were dead,
They brought me bitter news to hear and bitter tears to shed.
I wept as I remembered how often you and I
Had tied the Sun with talking and sent him down the sky.
1.3 SOME EXCERPTS FROM SUJIT MUKHERJEE’S ‘PROPOSITIONS’
Activity 3
Do you think that the comparison with music is an apt one?
1.4 THE NEED FOR A NEW METHODOLOGY TO WRITE INDIAN LITERARY HISTORY
Sujit Mukherjee makes a special case for devising a new methodology to write
the history of Indian Literature. Before we go into the details of why he wants a
new approach to write Indian literary history, let usstart with the question: “What
is history?” The term history is a Greek term that means “to know”. History is
both the act of inquiry and the resulting knowledge from that inquiry. Thus history
relates to the accounts of events arrived at by making inquiries. Histories are
records of events, personalities, happenings etc., preceding this very moment
and everything that really happened up to now.
Literary history is among the youngest in the history of histories. We have many
categories of history – History of Nations, History of Religions, History of Wars,
History of Races, History of People History of Philosophy, History of Empires,
History of Class Struggles, History of Science… there are endless narratives of
past events relating to a particular civilization, country, period, person, etc.,
usually written as a chronological account. In thislong list of historical disciplines,
History of Language and History of Literature are among the latest.
Activity 4
What do you think could be the broad heads under which history can be
categorized?
It has been easy to write a British, French, Spanish, Italian, and American History
of Literature because they are monolingual – i.e., there is just one language in
which literary works have been written in these different nations. So when we
speak of French literature, all literary works in the French language are
chronologically listed and commented upon. This is true of English literature,
European literature (literature relating to different European nations), American
literature etc., where the language of the land is single and homogenous.
Here we encounter the first hurdle in writing a History of Indian literature since
we have a multiplicity of languages and a still greater multiplicity of dialects
within each language in India. The Indian languages have never remained as
stand-alone languages and there is considerable mixing of languages and dialects
that have contributed to their growth and enrichment. The sibling influence of
sister languages and dialects on each other make for a heterogeneous literary
tradition that is uniquely Indian. Hindi, for example, has a dialect called Awadhi
and Tulsidas blended the two and this helped Hindi to develop dynamically.
By way of illustration, Sujit Mukherjee cites the example of the two great Indian
epics – the Ramayana and the Mahabharata that have been orally composed in
many Indian dialects and written in almost all Indian languages with changes
and embellishments to the original story. The two epics have been rendered in a
variety of versions at different points of time and they offer a glimpse of the
multicultural complexity that has contributed to a high level of creativity in Indian
literary writings. The Ramayana narrative has had many types of retellings in
different parts of the country in different languages like Kashmiri, Tamil,
Malayalam, Telugu, Assamese, Bangla, Maithili etc. Guru Gobind Singh’s
Ramavatar hasthe neoclassical texture ofBraj bhasha and it ismixed with Persian,
Punjabi and Hindi to make Rekhta – the precursor of modern Urdu. We have Jain
and Buddhist versions ofthe two epics and also in Nepali and Mizo. The sustaining
force of the Ramayana can be seen in one text with multiple renderings in
numerous languages happening through different periods of time. These
developments are not chronological, but have occurred at different times which
make it difficult to think of Indian literary history as a linear structure, from
beginning to end as on a straight line.
Activity 5
Do try to watch a performance of the epics enacted as dance and drama to
experience the total effect of music, dance, costumes and setting to bring
the rich literary epic on stage. How do you think this enhances the impact
of the narrative? Write down your observations
What makesthe Indian literary tradition unique is that it consists of many strands
and it is not easy and desirable to straitjacket all literary writings in India under
a single literary tradition moving straight and steady through time from the past
to the present. Further, it is a difficult task to write a comprehensive and
chronological history of Indian literary tradition because there was no one single
major language in India like English in Britain, French in France, German in
Germany etc. In India different languages developed at different periods and
this makes it an uphill task to attempt a chronological arrangement or periodwise historical narrative of Indian literature. Unlike the Western tradition where
it is easy to write the literary history of nations that focus on a single language
and where the literary currents have a linear flow through different periods of
history, we cannotspeak of a single Indian literary tradition but multiple traditions
where the literary cross currents flow due to constant and frequent changing of
cultural frames. In addition, the interface of language with politics has caused
the rise of dominant languages and the fall of minor languages that got
marginalized as dialects and subsequently erased from the Indian literary tradition.
Sujit Mukherjee’s rationale behind formulating a new methodology is founded
on the fact that India has multiple languages and multiple literary traditions which
cannot be successfully represented by one history of Indian literature. In the
Introduction to the anthology, Cultural Diversity, Linguistic Plurality and Literary
Traditions in India, the editors write: “ Since language and literary traditions
emerge from specific historical and political points of reference, they have to be
studied from within their constantly changing culturalframes and not in isolation.”
This is why Sujit Mukherjee seeks an appropriate critical approach that would
reflect the unity in diversity and diversity in unity, characteristic of Indian Literary
tradition. The essay “Propositions” seeks an overview of the indigenous context
of a different kind of literary history.
1.4.1 Textual Analysis
Sujit Mukherjee starts with an illustration from classical Sanskrit drama to show
how one language developed multiple components. Sanskrit drama of the ancient
times employed three different usages for its three different types of characters.
Sanskrit is a historical Indo-Aryan language and described as ‘refined speech.’
And thus in Sanskrit classical drama, the language in its pristine form was
employed by the royalty and the educated class of priests who used it for religious
purposes. A derivative of Sanskrit is Prakrit which means ‘original, natural,
ordinary ’and therefore Prakrit was the natural language of the common people.
So in ancient Sanskrit drama, women were depicted as speaking Prakrit, while
the third form,Apabrahmasa which means‘offstandard’in speech i.e., low literary
language, was used by the common characters. Both Prakrit and Apabrahmasa
derived from Sanskrit. In any scene in a Sanskrit classical drama, we see the
employment of all the three forms. According to Sujit Mukherjee, it is an index
of a multi lingual society which simultaneously developed different languages
within one language. In ancient literary culture, as well as in the middle and
modern periods, we see a similarsimultaneous development of many languages.
It is relatively easy to write a history of Indian literature till the 12th century as
there was only one major language at that time and that was Sanskrit. But from
the 12th to the 20th century, there was no single predominant language that could
be identified, located and written about in chronological sequence. Many
languages and their offshoots developed and it became imperative that any history
of Indian literature should cover all these languages. So a single formula of tracing
the history of one language could not be followed and that too in a diachronic
way. Writing the history of Indian Language and Literature cannot be on Western
lines, but has to be modified to record the development of literature written in all
the Indian languages which are currently present, asseparate histories of literature
of individual Indian languages. Sujit Mukherjee gives the example of Tulsidas
who has to be seen not as just a Hindi poet but as one who belongs to the
medieval period and one who transcends that period to become a great poet of
Indian literature of all times. Mukherjee writes:
Tulsidas is generally regarded as a great poet. For this greatness to be
convincing, it ought to become apparent in an ascending degree of
magnitude… first Tulsidas as a great poet of medieval India; second as
great in the history of Hindi poetry; finally as a great poet of Indian literature
(that is, considering all other Indian languages through time). These would
seem to be the obvious orders of measurement in any Indian literary
achievement… But given our present procedure, Tulsidasis evaluated mainly
as a Hindi poet, the first (medieval poet) and the third (poet of Indian
Literature) orders suggested here never received due consideration.
It is to be remembered that Indian literature is not to be seen as a vertical growth
of one language from ancient timesto modern times but as one that has extensive
horizontal development branching into dialects and languages across regions. A
comprehensive Indian literary history is different from the present volumes of
history of individual languages. The former is a consolidation of all language
literatures to identify a literary culture while the latter is language-specific in
terms of time, trends, growth and decline. It is to be understood that a literary
culture cannot be formulated only through literary texts without taking into
account various other factors operating at any given time and place. For example,
medieval arts (painting, music, architecture…) and literature were greatly
influenced by the mystic, bhakti movement of that period. An inter-disciplinary
approach that identifies the influence of all artistic and aesthetic factors in the
composition of a text will enable the historian to read new meanings into our
literary past and discover new patterns of literary history.
Activity 6
Identify your mother tongue and find out how many dialects it has given
rise to.
A history of Indian Literature cannot ignore medieval Islamic Literature of the
Indus region. The texts are not available in the original and even if so, it is not
possible for the literary historian to read them all in the original and s/he has to
be content with translations. The literary historian, unlike the literary critic does
not attempt a comparative study of languages and literature. His/her concern is
with the authors who have contributed to Indian Literature in any language. For
the literary historian, details about the author are important as they will help to
examine the place of the author in our culture and thus relate our literary culture
to the makers of our literature.
When we attempt to correlate literary culture and history, we factor in all other
historical developments of particular periods. The distinguishing aspect of Indian
writing is its transformation from the classical concept of a writer to that of the
Middle Ages and presently extended to our times in the modern period. In the
early period it was believed a writer wasinvested with divine grace and therefore
regarded as a creator of art and literature like God the Creator. But in the medieval
age, the poet or the writer was both an artist and an individual among other
individuals – a courtier, priest, warrior, king, lover etc. – in short, a committed
member of his/her society and therefore their place in literary history has to
factor in all these in addition to their literary output. Sujit Mukherjee writes: “It
is easy to forget that a literary map of India would be just as extensive and varied
as a political map or one showing the physical features.”
A literary text is to be seen in its two aspects: (1) the language in which it is
written and (2) itsform or genre. Literary form is not static; it is not rooted to one
place or one language or one genre. It travels freely and gets adapted in other
regions where a different language is used. This adaptation is prominent in certain
categories such the gatha of Prakrit, the pada of Bangla, the vacana of Kannada
etc. Many literary forms have thus undergone comprehensive transformations
when adapted from one language into another. Also many literary forms have
grown out of folk literature, while many other forms have been adapted from the
West, in particular the novel which was first cultivated in Bengali literature and
from there entered other Indian regional languages. So a literary history has to
reckon not only with itinerant indigenous forms, but also with imported forms.
Nazrul Islam’s Ghazals in Bangla have been influenced by Persian and Urdu.
Though a Muslim, he also composed songs on Kali, the Hindu goddess- attesting
to the fact that Indian literature was never insular in terms of religion. A good
number of novels written at particular times in different Indian languages also
show how they were social and political in content.
Literary forms that developed through cross fertilization also brought with them
new literary conventions. A literary historian of Indian literature has to focus on
the links between one regional convention and another. It is not that the basic
forms varied, but the conventions supporting the forms changed. These
conventionslend themselvesto comparable links, but there are many conventions
that stand uniquely alone. What is to be remembered is that the conventions
grow out of literary forms that are the off-shoots of Indian languages.
Activity 7
What do you understand by “cross-fertilisation”? Can you think of any
texts or artistic expression that has seen the influence of cross-fertilisation?
Just as in the 10th century all languages were overshadowed by Sanskrit, today in
the modern times, the influence of English and Western thought seems to
overshadow our indigenous literature. Indian literature today has the trappings
of Western culture, alien to many of us except a few who have some degree of
acquaintance with our own ancient Sanskrit culture as well. Hence a literary
historian writing on the modern phase of Indian literature has to account for
strong Western currents and an equally strong revival of our earlier conventions
that are evidenced in modern Indian writing. As Sujit Mukherjee says:
All the same, in dealing with the modern phase, the historian must
not be misled by the seeming sameness of Indian Literature in its
submission to the West. Revivals of older conventions have taken
place in areas where foreign influence is the most active, and the
overlay of the new and the old has made it difficult than ever before
to recognize the true identity of a current convention. Earlier Sanskrit
and now English have transmitted their conventions to many Indian
languages. Also the transmission of conventions within Indian
languages is a clear proof that all literature in India form a part of
the same literary culture.
Yet another linking point is the affiliation of Indian Literature to tradition. The
innumerable literary textsin very many Indian languagesfollow from the original
text from which tradition has originated.
We have earlier pointed out how the Ramayana, known as the ‘adi kavya’( the
first text) and regarded as the repository of human values has given rise to a
number of distinguished literary works in Indian languages spanning from
Kashmir to Kerala, from Bengal to Gujarat, from Assam in the North-East to
the other southern states of Andhra, Karnataka and Tamilnadu. The literary map
of India closely parallels the geographical map of India. This is true of the
Mahabharata as well though re-creating the full text of the great epic has been
difficult in view of its large proportions. But it has been a source book for many
poets and playwrights to express through their poems and plays, the modern
man’s predicament which as the epic presents, is only a human predicament that
is true of all times and places…
Sujit Mukherjee concludes:
Mahabharata has sometimes been classified as ithihasa purana. The
more straightforward Puranas – Brahma, Pada, Visnu, Brahmavaivrata,
… twelve others as well as the eighteen minor puranas have nourished
the literature in all our languages, with plot and character, theme and
structure, image and symbol and in many other ways in which the
collective memory of a race can serve its writers. Reaching us from
even farther back is the northern heritage of the Vedic hymns, the prose
of the Brahmanas and the Upanishadic dialogues, while the South has
preserved the ten anthologies of sangam poetry.
Thus the literary historian attempting to write a history of Indian literature must
deal with our permanent assets that have come down to us as heritage. Sujit
Mukherjee thus concludes that Indian literature “is one entity but comprising
many languages”.
1.5 LET US SUM UP
Sujit Mukherjee makes a case for finding a new methodology to write a
history of Indian Literature.
India is a multi lingualsociety and literary developments in many languages
have taken place from the ancient timesto modern timesthrough the medieval
years. A literary history of India has to deal with all these multi-lingual
developments
These developments have taken place at different times and therefore we
cannot write a history of Indian literature chronologically but have to find
an alternative method that records all the changes.
Each modern language isseparate in its literary achievements and therefore
each Indian language demands separate histories of literature. But this will
mean splitting our literary heritage into a number of segments that may
erase the unity ofliterary heritage that has blossomed into diverse literatures.
What we need is a broad spectrum of our literary past to bring in a new
alternative mode of writing our literary history.
In this mode, the historian should factor in all contributory influences on a
literary text such as music, arts, painting etc.
New literary forms, new conventions have all to be investigated for the
links between languages.
The continuance of tradition can be seen in the innumerable literary texts
that have arisen from our two basic epics the Ramayana and the
Mahabharata. These texts differ from the original though the human values
and human predicament that one sees in them can be traced back to the
original texts.
The conclusion is that the new mode of writing history of literature should
not obviate the heritage of Indian literature which is a single entity and
which has fostered the growth and development of many forms of literature
in many languages.
The underlying point of the essay is to write the history of Indian literature
with the twin focus on unity of heritage and diversity of literature.
1.6 AIDS TO ACTIVITIES
Activity 1 : All regions of our country and even Indonesia have different
versions of the epics which are oral, written or performed. Pandun
Ka Kara, for example is one version which is sung in the Mewat
area of Rajasthan.
Activty 2 : High culture is seen as something followed by educated people
and includes classical literature and music. Popular culture is what isfollowed and practised by a large number of people. It includes folk lore, songs, TV, radio etc.
Activity 3 : There is a pan-Indian sense of identity which runs through all the
languages and our literature and in that sense, the comparison
with music is an apt one.
Activity 4 : Political History, Diplomatic History, Cultural History, Social
History, Economic History, Intellectual History.
Activity 5 : When we see something being performed, with sound effects,
music, appropriate costumes and makeup, it leaves a greater
impression on our minds and we remember it for a long time.
Activity 6 : For example, the major dialects of Marathi are Standard Marathi
and the Varhadi dialect. Koli, Malvani Konkani has also been
heavily influenced by Marathi varieties.
Activity 7 : Cross-fertilisation means a coming together and mingling of
various influences. Languages experience this as do the arts.
Think of popular film music – there are so many different
influences like Western compositions and instruments, rap etc
and which have given rise to a new form.
1.7 GLOSSARY
Catholic : (in this context) wide-ranging; all-embracing
Conventions : customs, practices
Correlate : compare , connect
Diachronic : study of changes in a language over a period of time
(concerned specially with languages, as they change
through time)
Germinating : generating, producing
Heterogeneous : not of the same kind, varied
Homogenous : uniform, of the same kind
Indigenous : original, native
Itinerant : wandering, travelling, roaming
Medieval : belonging to the Middle Ages (1000-1500 A.D)
Obviate : do away with, avoid
Preceding : coming before
Rationale : grounds, principle or fundamental reason
Seminal : ground breaking, original, contains ideas for future
development
Spectrum : range, variety
Stand-alone : capable of standing independently, being complete
1.8 UNIT END QUESTIONS
1) What is the rationale behind Sujit Mukherjee’s argument that the Indian
literary historian needs a new methodology to write a history of Indian
Literature?
2) What are the new factorsto be kept in mind while writing a history of Indian
Literature?
3) Discuss the terms “unity of heritage” and “ diversity of Literature” with
reference to Indian literary history.
1.9 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING
1) Bhattacharjee, Nirmal Kanti. Indian Literature Vol. 50, No. 6 (236)
(November-December 2006).
2) ibid
3) ibid
4) ibid
5) Introduction. Ibid.
6) Iyengar, Srinivasa K R. Indian Writing in English, Sterling Publishers Pvt.Ltd
(Revised, Updated edition) 1 December 2012.
7) Kipling, Rudyard. “The Ballad of East and West”
8) Mehrotra,Arvind Krishna. Concise History of Indian Literature in English,
C. Hurst & Co. Publishers, 2003.
9) Mukherjee, Sujit. Some Positions on a Literary History of India, Central
Institute of Indian Languages, 1981
10) ———————. A Dictionary of Indian Literature: Beginnings-1850,
Orient Blackswan, 1999.
11) Naik, M K. History of Indian English Literature, Sahitya Akademy, 2005.
12) Paranjape, Makarand. “Post-Independence Indian English Literature:
Towards a New Literary History”, Economic and Political Weekly , Vol.
33, No. 18 (May 2-8, 1998).
13) Paul, Sukrita (ed) Cultural Diversity, Linguistic Plurality and Literary
Traditions in India, Macmillan, New Delhi, 2005
UNIT 2 ‘THE MAD LOVER’ BY SISIR KUMAR DAS
Structure
2.0 Objectives
2. 1 Introduction
2.2 About the Author: Sisir Kumar Das
2.3 The Text – Excerpts from Sisir Kumar Das’ ‘The Mad Lover’
2.3.1 Textual analysis
2.4 Let Us Sum Up
2.5 Aids to Activities
2.6 Glossary
2.7 Unit End Questions
2.8 References and Suggested Reading
2.0 OBJECTIVES
After a detailed study of this Unit, you will have
a basic ideas of the Bhakti and Sufi movements in the pre medieval and
medieval periods
a concept of the Mad Lover as an obsession with God that establishes a
close relationship between God and the worshipper.
some idea of the linguistic plurality and the spiritual oneness in the Bhakti
and Sufi movements that stressed the union of the individual with God (the
union of the finite soul with the Infinite Over soul)
Words in bold are explained in the Glossary
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Let us refresh your memory. In the previous Unit (Unit 2) on Sujit Mukherjee’s
‘Propositions’, you learnt about the need to develop a new methodology to write
Indian literary history that takes into account the multiple Indian languages,
their literary traditions and their mutual influence on one another. In this process,
you learnt that there is the running undercurrent of one single Indian literary
tradition among all these different Indian languages and literatures.
In this unit you will see how Sisir Kumar Das illustrates the presence of a single
literary tradition by comparing the two distinct Movements – the Bhakti and the
Sufi movements of the pre medieval and medieval periods and discovers the
many similarities in their approach to God. He discusses the common tradition
of ecstatic devotion to God within their literary and historical contexts amidst
the profusion of linguistic and cultural diversity.
2.2 ABOUT THE AUTHOR: SISIR KUMAR DAS
It is difficult to pack in this limited space, all details about Sisir Kumar Das who
was a distinguished poet, playwright, essayist, translator and an academic scholar.
He was one of the pioneers in introducing
Comparative Literature as an academic discipline.
Instead of keeping individual literatures in
watertight compartments, he introduced the
comparative approach to the study of literature. He
declared that “It is like that old saying: What does
he know of English who only English knows. The
literature departments have erected walls between
literatures. New thoughts would start blowing only
when these walls are shattered down.”
He was versatile in Bangla and English and his
Sisir Kumar Das(1936-2003)
Bengali translations of Greek playsshow his depth of understanding of the Greek
theatre. His publications in Bangla include four volumes of poetry, six books for
children, thirty-three plays and a collection of thirteen essays. In addition, he
edited translations of Greek and German plays, poems of Chinese, Greek, Hebrew
and English poets, and also prose works ranging from Aristotle’s Poetics to a
biography on Emperor Akbar. He has around twenty publications in English. He
held the distinguished post of Tagore Professor at Delhi University from 1980 to
2001 and also remained the president of the Comparative Literature Association
of India (CLAI) from 1999 until his untimely death in 2003.
2.3 THE TEXT – EXCERPTS FROM SISIR KUMAR DAS’ ‘THE MAD LOVER’
The dominating note of Indian religious poetry in the medieval period is that of
an ecstasy, a longing of the devotee for union with God and merge his identity
with Godhead. In no other period of Indian history one finds so many saints and
poets in different parts of the country, speaking different languages, practicing
divergent rituals, belonging to different religious orders and yet behaving almost
in an identical manner in their approach to God. The image… of a mad lover is
the most conspicuous and the most recurrent imagery in the medieval religious
poetry.
(The) Bhakti movement (in India) was a movement of the common people …
who revolted against the established religions and challenged the social
conventions… The movement also voiced the joy of the liberated spirit. There
was an abundance of emotion, emphasis on music, dance and poetry as a mode
of worship, a discovery of the power and the beauty of the language of the people.
The God of the Bhakti movement is no longer a transcendent and immanent
reality beyond all comprehension and sense. It is a God close to the heart of the
common man. At times the deity appears as a child and at times as a friend, and
more often as a lover longing to meet his beloved.
The Islamic mysticism…or Sufism emerged almost at the same time in the Middle
East… Rabia, the mystic of Basra (d. 801), who is generally considered to be the
most important saint in the Sufi movement was also one of the first to enunciate
the doctrine of divine love… similar to the nature of love as found in the Indian
Bhakti poetry.
From the eleventh century onwards, sufi saints started exerting their influence
on the massesin India, particularly in Sindh and Punjab.The Sufi poetsflourished between the thirteenth and the fourteenth century which coincided with the
formative stages of the Bhakti movement in North India and also in certain parts
of the South.
Sufism also started as a protest against the ruling class and against the rigidity of
law. Sufism though rooted in the Quran, derived much of its inspiration from
various sources – some of which were anti quaranic… Sufism distinguished by
features such as the conception of God as love, its approach to God through
love, its dependence on God’s mercy, and its idea of tawhid and dhikr often
appeared as anti quaranic in certain aspects. When Sufism came to India with its
features offana, dhikr and sama (singing and dancing), the doctrines oftawakkal
ala Allah(total dependence on God’s mercy), its emphasis on the role of murshid
(guide) and its mashuq-ashiq (beloved-lover), the common Indian found them
… almost identical with his own.
Sufi thoughts were easily absorbed in (Indian) literary traditions…(Thus) Sufism
when viewed in the wider perspective of Indian traditions should be considered
as yet another tradition rather than what came from Persia…contributing a new
dimension to the Bhakti movement….Sufi poetic tradition intermingled with
Indian religious poetry and resulted in the creation of a new symbol (imagery of
the mad lover) in Indian poetry and Indian religious life.
(Yet anothersimilarity)isthe ritual of dancing…creating an atmosphere of rapture
and delight… the frenzy aroused by the chanting of the names of god, singing
songs about divine love and by dancing, made the Sufi and the Indian saint
equally conspicuous in the eyes of the people. {Sisir Kumar gives examples of
women poet-saints, Meera from Rajasthan, Andal from Tamilnadu and
Mahadeviyakka from Karnataka expressing their unrestrained love for God}.
The epithet ‘mad’ is not necessarily a pejorative one in the Indian religious
context. In the sixteenth century we find this madness personified in Chaitanya.
His contemporary Malayalam poet Ezhuttachchan was often called kallukudiyan
(the drunken man) and the Sindhi poet Sachal was surnamed Sarman (the
intoxicated one) Even Kabir… could not escape the frenzy of divine love. He
sings:
‘The Mad Lover’ by Sisir
Kumar Das
I am not skilled in book knowledge
Nor do I understand controversy
I have grown mad, reciting and hearing God’s praises
O father, I am mad, the whole world is sane
I am mad
I have not grown mad of my own will
God hath made me mad
Activity 1
Why is ‘madness’ not associated with negativity in the context that Sisir
Kumar Das refers to above?
It is sufficient for us at this point to remember that the devotional frenzy that
dominated the Bhakti movement found its most congenial medium in the
framework of love poetry.
The longing for the beloved as expressed in Mahadevi became the central theme
in Vaishnav poetry in Bengali and Hindi, particularly in Maithili and reached its
dizzy height in the character of Radha… In the song of the Alvars, of the
Virasaivas, of Meera and Kabir, there is a personal and direct dialogue between
God and the devotee. (Divine poetry) retained the flavor of a secular love poem
and a familiar domestic situation…
The same process can be seen working in Sufi poetic traditions also. Sufi poetry
attained a new dimension both in terms of poetic intensity and spiritual fervor
when poets started exploiting secular legends involving characters deeply in
love…The story of Mahmood, the king of Ghazni, and his slave Ayaz, though
loathed by many…because of its homosexual overtones, became a model for
religious love poems, eulogizing the total surrender and dedication of the lover
to the beloved. Jalaluddin Rumi…also made the tale of Laila and Majnu a part
of Sufi poetry. The emotional state of a Sufi in his religious quest finds a new
symbolism in the ardent love of Majnun for Laila….The Sufis also took up
several legends …and transformed them into spiritual allegories. Maulan
Daud…wrote Chandayan…in the Awadhi speech using the romantic tale of Lor
and Chanda…it soon became a part of the prestigious literature of the Indian
Sufis… Malik Mohammed Jaysi wrote Padmavat…in Awadhi, allegorizing the
legend of Padmini and the siege of Chittor…
The emergence of Urdu as a fine instrument of literary expression was to a great
extent accelerated by the Sufi poets… Urdu of all Indian languages is the richest
mine of expression of spiritual love in the Sufi tradition…The poets of Punjab
and Sindh drew their symbolism from the legends and romances of Heer and
Ranjha, Sassi and Pannu, and Sohni and Mahiwal…The Heers and Sohnis in
Punjabi and Sindh poetry can be said to be manifestations of Radha in a Sufi
dress…In these legends one finds an authentic instance of interaction between
the poetic tradition of the Sufis and that of the Bhakti movement. Bulleh Shah,
often described as the Rumi of the Punjab…exploited diverse traditions of
religions and poetry: his response to both Hindu and Islamic thought betrays his
catholic temper…The soul’slonging for the Ultimate, the basic doctrine of Sufism
as well as the Bhakti movement finds a new form and a new image…Bulleh
Shah created a new character of Heer, whose longing for God, the beloved, merged
in the chorus of the devotees of Siva or Krishna…
The idea of the separation of the soul from God, developed into a love symbolism
where the soul assumed the image of a mad lover. The union is the goal and the
joy of the union is ineffable. But poetry lies in the process of the union than in
the union itself… both in Sufi poetry as well as in the Bhakti poetry, it is the
theme of longing and waiting for God, the theme of one’s journey towards the
beloved which dominates. Poetry is born out of the mad pursuits… In knowing
Him…the mad lover as he approaches his beloved fills with a joy the like of
which he has never experienced.
Activity 2
What was the new symbol that the Bhakti and Sufi traditions brought into
the poetic discourse?
2.3.1 Textual Analysis
The essay makes three points.
a) The recurring image of the mad lover in the Bhakti poetry of the medieval
period and in the Sufi poetry of the same time.
b) The similarity between the Bhakti and the Sufi movements in the context of
ecstatic religious experience through the liberal use of secular legends,
traditions, song and dance
c) The ecstasy of a lover towards his beloved is the same as the ecstasy of the
poet-worshipper towards God
All the three points reflect a heightened experience of rapturous delight and
intense bliss that is almost trance like, as the poet-worshipper seeks his/her
union with God. This state of euphoria is akin to being in a state of frenzied
elation that cannot be rationally explained and it propels the lover to an ecstatic
state which marks the summit (the height of joyous experience) of life, beyond
which life cannot rise. Poetry is the spontaneous expression of intense feeling
and emotion. If prose is the flow of reason, poetry is the flow of emotion. This
kind of elation, almost mystic in its exaltation can best be summed up as a state
of frenzy or madness.
Sisir Kumar Das illustrates the mad frenzy of total devotion and absorption in
God through some of the well known Bhakti poets of the medieval period. As
stated above, the characteristics of poetry are intensity of emotion and beauty.
Usually it is an expression of intensely felt emotions of the poet. Bhakti poetry is
lyrical poetry which expresses personal emotions or feelings, typically spoken
in the first person. But here, we have two protagonists – the poet i.e., the singer
or the addresser and God, the addressee. The poet is presented as a mad lover, an
imagery that we come across frequently in medieval religious poetry. As for the
addressee, i.e., God, He is no longer presented as an abstract god (existing only
in the mind, non figurative ) that the sages experienced in a state of trance and
who therefore is neither visible nor comprehensible to the ordinary man, but as a
God who is close to the heart of even the common man. God appears to the
worshipper as a figurative God, sometimes as a child, sometimes as a friend, but
more often as a lover desiring to meet his beloved.
The Bhakti movement was a movement of the common people who revolted
against the shackles of social conventions and the authoritarianism of the
Brahminical priests and scholars who ruled over the temples and thrust old,
fossilized rituals and customs on the simple, naïve and ordinary men and women.
The song of the Bhakti poets became the song of a liberated spirit which expressed
joyous emotions through song and dance. The Saiva saints of Tamilnadu
(worshippers of Shiva), Chaitanya and Meera are good examples of poets who
used dancing as a means to express their ecstasy. Meera, charmed by her lover
Krishna, defied all social conventions as she sang and danced in frenzied joy
Sanvare ke rang raci
saj singara bandh pag ghungaru lok laj taj naci
I have coloured myself in the colour of the dark hued one
Adorning myself and putting ghungharoos on my feet,
I gave up all the wordly rules and danced
So did Chaitanya, whose trances and ecstasy earned him the sobriquet,
madamatta hathi (raving like an elephant intoxicated with wine) and wasspoken
of as unmatter pray prabhukare gannrtya (the master sings and dances like a
mad man). Tagore addresses him as mad Nimai (one who is filled with inner
light). Similarly, the Malayalam poet Ezhuttachachan is often called kallukudiyan(
a drunken man). We have referred to Kabir’ssong (see 2.3) to describe the frenzy
of his divine love. Many women poet-saints like Andal and Mahadeviakka from
South India expressed their unrestrained love uninhibitedly, choosing male deities
like Krishna and Shiva as their husbands. They all subscribe to the descriptive
identity of a mad lover. It is wrong to impute the term ‘mad lover’ as a negative
and uncomplimentary term as it only describes a spiritual and emotional state
that transcendsrational understanding and analysis. There is a thin line that divides
irrationality from non-rationality or trans-rationality.
Trans-rationality refersto an experience that is un-interpreted by rational or logical
sense making while irrationality is being illogical or unreasonable. In short,
while irrationality is that which does not lend itself to reason, trans-rationality is
that which cannot be understood by reason. This is a fine and significant
distinction. The mad lover’s frenzy is a complete absorption in his or her object
of love. It is a total identification between the lover and the beloved that cannot
be affirmed by logic or reason. All the medieval religious poets in this sense
were mad lovers.
Sufism – often cited as Islamic mysticism – arose at the same time in the Middle
East and travelled to India. Just as the Bhakti movement revolted against the
established Brahminical authority and the imposition ofstrictsocial conventions,
Sufism with its emphasis on asceticism revolted against the reduced spirituality
of the Quran to a rigid legal process because of lslamic priests and military
expansion. Sufism developed as a protest against the ruling military and priesthood
with its proscriptive injunctions without recognizing the Quran’s conception
of God as the embodiment of love and mercy. The great Sufi poet, Rumi sings
about the twin attributes of God as love (mohabbat) and ardent love (Ishq). Ishq
became the key word in Sufi symbolism.
Sufism was similar to the Bhakti movement in making song and dance central to
its praise of the Lord. Like the Bhakti poets, the Sufis conceptualized God as a
personification of love and compassion,surrendered themselvestotally to God’s
mercy (tawakkul ala Allah) and built their devotion on the idea of mashuq-ashik
(beloved-lover). The attributes of God, the belief in God’s mercy and the approach
to Him through the concept of a lover and his beloved had an unmistakable
parallel in Bhakti poetry. Thus it was easy to absorb Sufi thought into Indian
literary traditions. The mystic madness we see in Indian women poet-saints is
also seen in the Sufi woman poet, Rabia who refused to accept any one as her
lover except God. This is just like Meera’s absorption in Krishna and Andal
regarding herself as Krishna’s bride. Sufism thus became yet another Indian
literary tradition. As a student of literature, it is essential to look at the way Sufi
tradition was woven into Indian religious poetry. The fusion of the Sufi tradition
and the Bhakti movement created a new symbol in Indian poetry and religious
life.
Apart from the introduction of dancing, we find another similarity between the
two traditions – the Sufi and the Bhakti – in their use of secular love and secular
legends to provide a new dimension to poetic intensity and spiritual fervor. Even
the much reviled homosexual love story of Mahmood Ghazni and his slave Ayaz
was adopted by the Sufi poets to express the spiritual communion or fellowship
between the poet-worshipper and God. So did Rumi use the legend of Laila and
Majnun as a part of his spiritual poetry. Sufi poets also took tales and legends
prevalent among the Indian common people and turned them into spiritual
allegories.
Activity 3
Why was it easy for the Indian poetic tradition to assimilate Sufi elements?
Related to this concept of the mad lover is the notion of ecstatic love that makes
secular love no different from divine love. The aspiration of the earthly lover for
a total union with his beloved is much the same as the spiritual aspiration of the
poet –worshipper to unite with his/her lord. The theme of union is the common
link between secular love and spiritual love. The experience of oneness – of two
separate individuals embracing a single identity reveals the intense desire of a
human being to become one with the Lord. This is the same as Heer’s sense of
total identity with Ranjha.
Sisir Kumar Das quotes a couplet fromHeerRanjha about two identities becoming
one, in which Heer says:
Ranjha Ranha kardi ni mai ape Ranjha hoi
Sadhi ni mainu Dhido Ranjha Hir na akho koi.
In translation it reads:
Repeating ‘Ranjha, Ranjha ‘ myself, I have become Ranjha
Call me Dhido ranjha, none should call me Hir any more.
There are other examples like the Bengali poet Ramprasad addressing Kali
“Mother, I shall devour you” and the Virasaiva poet, Basavanna who sings:
Feet will dance
Eyes will see
Tongue will sing
And not find content
What else, what else
Shall I do?
The heart is not content,
What else shall I do?
Listen my lord.
It’s not enough
I have it in me
To cleave thy belly
And enter thee
O lord of the meeting rivers.
In a similar fashion, the Sufi poet Rumi sings of the separation of the human soul
from God, where the soul assumes the status of a mad lover. He compares this
separation with that of the reed flute that is cut from the reed bed and how it
longs to get back to its original source
Harken to this reed forlorn
Breathing ever since ‘twas torn
From its rushy bed, a strain
Of impassioned love and pain
The secret of my song , though near
None can see and none can hear
Oh, for a friend to know the sign
And mingle all his soul with mine.
‘Tis the flame of love that fired me,
‘Tis the wine of love that inspired me
Wouldst thou learn how lovers bleed
Harken, harken to the Reed.
These lines are from Rumi’s poem ‘The Song of the Reed’ and is the first poem
of Rumi’s Mathnavi (Masnavi-l Ma’navi) which are known as the “Spiritual
couplets” or “RhymingCouplets of Profound Spiritual Meaning”. You have earlier
noted how Sufism used music and dance in its spiritual quest. The religious
dance of the Sufis was known as Sama and the reed flute was an instrumental
accompaniment to the Sama dance. Rumi symbolically presents the reed flute
as the devotee of God. It becomes an instrument of music when it is cut (‘torn’)
from the reed bed and it representsthe human soul which in its music remembers
its union with the Divine and a longing for a reunion after its separation. So the
poet asks the reader/listener to hearken – to be attentive to the reed flute that has
been fashioned from the reed plant and which, through its music, tellsthe audience
about the impassioned love and longing of the human soul to reunite with God.
Like the reed that is cut from its reed bed, the poet has been separated from God
and he longs to return to Him. Away from God, even as he experiences the flame
of human love in the midst of the pain of separation from heaven, he has gained
knowledge of the purpose of his existence. In short, his poems are meant to
guide his readers towards the way to discover God. He says, God (the flame of
love) has created him, and his work has been inspired by love among human
beings (the wine of love). He asks the audience to understand how lovers ‘bleed’
to rejoin God. Here the word ‘bleed’ is used to indicate the pain of death, the
separation from the world of love of his beloved but in death he attains eternal
life by reunion with God. This quest for religious knowledge, this mystical
journey towards the knowledge of God is through hearkening to the music of the
reed flute that sings of human longing to return to the heavenly source from
where the soul came into the world.
Sisir Kumar Das shows how Sufi poets and Indian religious poets were one in
their intensity of love for God. The separation from Krishna made Meera leave
her royal home and seek an everlasting union with the Lord and the same emotion
made Chaitanya roll in ecstasy in Vrindavan. The essay ‘The Mad Lover’
encapsulates the religious fervor and ecstasy of the poets of the medieval period
irrespective of the religion they subscribed to. The editorial note to the collection
of essays and poems in the text Cultural Diversity, Linguistic Plurality and
Literary Traditions concludes by saying “Sisir Kumar Das explores the basic
ideas of the Bhakti and Sufi movements through the metaphor of the mad lover
found in poetry from different parts of India in the medieval and pre medieval
periods.”
Activity 4
From your reading of the excerpt and the textual analysis, what do you
think is the most significant similarity between the Sufi and Bhakti
movements?
2.4 LET US SUM UP
A study of the text of ‘The Mad Lover’ tells us about the
* concept of the mad lover as the ecstatic experience of the poet–worshipper
in his/her search for a re-union with God
* application of this concept of mad lover commonly both to the Bhakti poets
and the Sufi poets of the medieval period
* intensity of love between a lover and a beloved can well be extended to the
impassioned love between human beings and God.
* secular love that is experienced by loversin Indian legendslike Heer Ranjha,
Sohni Mahiwal, Lalia–Majnu as well as in stories with Sufi elements
involving characters who are used to express the intensity of divine love
* transformation of the pain of separation of the human soul from God into
symbolic love poetry where the human soul assumes the image of a mad
lover.
2.5 AIDS TO ACTIVITIES
Activity 1 : The word ‘mad’ does not hold any negative connotations in this context
as it describes the intensity of devotion.
Activity 2 : The new symbol that the two movements brought in was that of
the mad lover.
Activity 3 : It was easy to assimilate Sufi elements into Bhakti as their attitudes,
certain customs like song and dance and their concept and manner
of addressing God was very similar.
Activity 4 : The greatest similarity between Bhakti and Sufi poetry is in their
approach to God.
2.6 GLOSSARY
Abstract : incapable of being perceived by the senses, especially
by touch
Allegory : The representation of abstract ideas or principles by
characters,
Alvars : TamilBhakti poetsaints, whose namemeansimmersed
in
Asceticism : The doctrine that through the renunciation of worldly
pleasures, attributing symbolic meanings or
significance to objects, events or relationships
Cleave : split open, divide, slice
Ccommunion : affinity, sharing thoughts and feelings
dhikr : remembering Allah
Ecstasy : intense joy or delight, a state of exalted joy
Euphoria : feeling of great joy or elation
fana, dhikr and sama: fana means annihilation of the self, Sama means
“listening”, while dhikr means “remembrance”. These
rituals often feature figures or events in narrative,
dramatic, or pictorial form
Forlorn : disconsolate, miserable, helpless
Fossilzed : extinct, antiquated
Godhead : the Almighty God
Hearken : listen
Homosexual : having a sexual orientation to persons of the same sex
Immanent : indwelling, inherent, of qualities that are spread
throughout
Impassioned : filled with passion includes singing, playing
instruments, dancing, recitation
Ineffable : indescribable, inexpressible
Mysticism : belief in or experience of a reality surpassing normal
human
Pejorative : disparaging, uncomplimentary, belittling
Personification : representation, embodiment
Pre medieval and : period from the 5
th C to the 14th C
medieval
Protagonist : the principal character in a work of fiction or play
Proscriptive : prohibitive commands or orders or directives
injunctions
Secular : Worldly, non-spiritual
Sobriquet : a nickname, an affectionate or humorous name
Sufism : the beliefs and practices of an ascetic, retiring, and
mystical sect in Islam
Symbolism : The practice of representing things by means of
symbols or of poetry and prayers, wearing symbolic
attire, and other rituals
tawhid : oneness of God
Trance : dream like state, hypnotic state
Transcendent : beyond and outside the range of human experience
and understanding or experience
Vaishnav : Hindu sect worshipping Vishnu
Virasaivas : Ardent devotees/worshippers of Lord Shiva
2.7 UNIT END QUESTIONS
1) What are the main points made by the writer in “The Mad Lover”?
2) How does Sisir Kumar Das illustrate the concept of the mad lover through
the Indian Bhakti poets?
3) What is the common link established between Bhakti poets and Sufi poets?
Give examples.
4) Elaborate on the use ofsecular legends and stories by the medieval religious
poets belonging to the Bhakti and Sufi movements
2.8 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING
1) Barks, Coleman. The Essential Rumi , Harper Collins publisher, 2013
2) Bly, Robert and Hirshfield, Jane. Meerabai: Ecstatic poems Beacon Press,
Boston, MA 2006
3) Das, Sisir Kumar. Smarak Sankhya. Ebong Mushayera. Kolkata.
4) Hawley,John. A Storm of Songs: India and the Idea of the Bhakti Movement,
Harvard University Press, 2015
5) op.cit
6) op.cit
7) Pechelis, Karen. The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press,2014
8) Ramanujan, A.K. Tamil Bhakti Poetry The Collected Poems of A.K.
Ramanujan, Poetry Foundation,1995
9) ————————— Speaking of Shiva Penguin, 1973
10) Rumi. Mathnawî and Diwan-e Shams-e Tabriz-i Umm ul qura Publications,
Gujranwala, Pakistan
11) Shah, Idries. The Way of the Sufi, The Idries Shah Foundation (1968-2015)
UNIT 3 BHAKTI AND SUFI MOVEMENTS IN MEDIEVAL INDIA
Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 The Bhakti Movement in Medieval India
3.3 The Sufi Movement in India
3.4 Link between the Upanishads and the Quran
3.5 Bulleh Shah, the Sufi Mystic and Poet
3.5.1 Bulleh Shah, an Apostle of Peace
3.6 Kafi, a form of Sufi poetry
3.6.1 The Kafi Tradition
3.7 ‘Kafi 7’ by Bulleh Shah
3.8 Analysis of the poem
3.9 Unity of Being: Meeting of Advaita and Sufi Philosophy
3.10 Let Us Sum Up
3.11 Aids to Activities
3.12 Glossary
3.13 Unit End Questions
3.14 References and Suggested Reading
3.0 OBJECTIVES
This unit introduces you to the Bhakti and Sufi movements in medieval India.
Medieval poetry in India is mainly devotional poetry and comprises poems of
both the Bhakti and the Sufi movements.
When you reach the end of this unit, you will have
learnt about the common features of the Bhakti and Sufi Movements in
Medieval India
got to know Bulleh Shah, the Punjabi Sufi poet
looked at the analysis of the poem “Kafi 7” by Bulleh Shah and
become aware of the link between Advaita Philosophy and the Sufi
philosophy.
Words in bold are explained in the Glossary
3.1 INTRODUCTION
As a sample of devotional poetry of the medieval period (belonging to both the
Bhakti and Sufi traditions), this unit will introduce you to four poets in the third
and the fourth units of this Block – Bulleh Shah (Punjabi Sufi), Baul Gaan (Bangla
folk singers), Mahadeviyakka, often referred to as Akka Mahadevi (Kannada)
and Meera Bai (Rajasthani and Hindi). A reading of these poets will serve to
reinforce the concept of India’s plurality with the underlying bond of unity. The
common thread of love and devotion that imbues these poems can teach us like
nothing else can, that the richness of Indian culture is in its variety and diverse
traditions which yet remain undoubtedly Indian to their core.
3.2 THE BHAKTI MOVEMENT IN MEDIEVAL INDIA
Let us first study the Bhakti movement , follow it up with a study of the Sufi
movement and then see the connecting link between both.
The Bhakti Movement started in South India (Kerala and Tamilnadu) in the 8
th C
and spread to the North and East India from the 15th C and reached great heights
in the 17thC. The Bhakti movement that resulted in a profusion of devotional
poetry was a pan India movement, stretching from North to South, East to West
by the end of 17thC. Though the movement can no longer be discerned after the
17thC, devotional poetry continues to be a part of Indian literature.
Though the Bhakti movement started in the 8th C, the word ‘bhakti’ was first
used in the 1st millennium BCE, in the Shvetashvatara Upanishad, the Katha
Upanishad and the Bhagavad Gita. The Shvetashvatara Upanishad is an ancient
Sanskrit text embedded in the Yajur Veda and it is the basic text in which Vedanta
philosophy, philosophy of Saivism and principles of Yoga have been delineated.
The last of three epilogue verses of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad, 6.23, uses
the word Bhakti as given under:
He who has the highest Bhakti (love, devotion of Deva (God),
just like his Deva, so for his Guru (teacher),
To him who is high-minded,
these teachings will be illuminating.
— Shvetashvatara Upanishad 6.23 (on Guru Bhakti)
This verse is notable for the use of the word Bhakti, and has been widely cited as
among the earliest mentions of “the love of God”. Bhakti means an emotional
devotion to one’s personal God. Bhakti marg (the path of devotion) is one of the
spiritual ways to attain moksha or liberation, the ultimate goal of spiritual
development, a state of eternal bliss, transcending the worldly state. The word
Bhakti is used in the Bhagavad Gita to denote a particular way to reach moksha
Activity 1
What is the importance of the Shvetashvatra Upanishad in the context of the
Bhakti movement?
The Bhakti movementswept across medieval India and most of the Bhakti poets
sang with loving devotion to Rama and Krishna, the incarnations of Vishnu.
This movement is significant as it not only produced great poetry, but it also
marked the beginning of a rebellion against the superficial Brahminical customs
and rituals, caste distinction and discrimination prevalent in society. The Bhakti
movement spread all over India through the songs of Kabir, Ravi Das, Meera
Bai, Chaitanya and many other lesser known mystics. These saint-poets laid
emphasis on Man’s actions as these alone would lead to his salvation. They
were called the Bhakti poets where the Sanskrit term Bhakti as used in the ancient
texts denoted “devotion to, and love for, a personal god or a representational god
by a devotee”. The Bhakti poets sought to attain spiritual union with the Lord
through their devotion by means of their soulful poetry.
Activity 2
Make a list of illustrious saint-poets of this period. Try to access some of
their poetry in your mother tongue
Let us take for example, Kabir’s Dohas which had a profound impact on the
Bhakti movement both as a social and a religious movement. As a social
movement, it had a great influence on the common man. Kabir’s simple message
of love and devotion as seen in the couplet given below had a mass appeal:
Pothi padh padh jag mua, bhaya na pundit koye
Dhai akhar prem ka padhe so pundit hoye
One does not become a pandit (learned person) by reading voluminous books,
but one can become one by understanding the two and a half letters which make
up the word ‘love’ (prem as written in Hindi).
Kabir between 1440 and 1518, Saint Ravidas in the 15th C and Meera between
1498 and 1557 were among the most influential poets of the Bhakti movement
with their twin messages that spoke of
i) a loving relationship between a devotee and his/her personal god and
ii) laid emphasis on devotion and individual worship of a god or goddessrather
than performance of elaborate sacrifices.
What this implies is that the Bhakti saint-poets had a liberal outlook and their
message focused on the devotee’s choice of his/her and personal God and the
freedom to worship in any way that was in consonance with their full devotion.
The Bhakti moment thus conveyed a social message to the devotees.
Activity 3
What was the message of the medieval saint-poets of India?
From the north, the Bhakti movement spread to the East pioneered by Chaitanya
Dev (1486-1534) who was revered as the greatest spiritual leader of Eastern
India (Bengal, Orissa, Bihar and Assam) and as an incarnation of Krishna. In
Punjab, Guru Nanak founded Sikhism and he wasinfluenced by poetslike Kabir,
Ravi Das, Jaidev of Bengal, Namdev and Sufi Baba Farid. Thus the Bhakti
movement was widespread from Punjab to Bengal and from Maharashtra to the
Deccan. Thisshows how the Bhakti movement gradually permeated to the whole
of India. We had earlier noted that the Bhakti movement started in the 8thC in
South India
Activity 4
Why do we regard the Bhakti Movement as a pan India movement?
3.3 THE SUFI MOVEMENT IN INDIA
During the period that saw the rise and spread of the Bhakti movement, India
also saw the advent of Islam with the ascendancy of the Mughal empire that
lasted between the 16th and the 19th century. It started with the ascension of Babur
in 1526 and ended with the death of Aurangazeb in1707. Within fifty years of
Aurangazeb’s death, this large Mughal empire started disintegrating. With weak
successors to Aurangazeb, a near empty treasury, the rise of the regional princes
of various Hindu kingdoms and the arrival of the East India Company that
established the British rule, the Mughal empire came to an end. The last of the
Mughal emperors was Bahadur Shah who was deposed and deported to Rangoon
by the East India Company in 1757.
During the Mughal dominance, the Islamic religion of the conquerors remained
hostile to Hinduism and was critical of its polytheism (worship of many gods),
idolatry (idol worship) and practice of irrational rituals. With its focus only on
the externalities of Hindu worship, Islam failed to understand and appreciate the
core binding principle of Hinduism that accepted (and continues to accept and
adheres to) multiple faiths and varied forms of worship practiced by different
religions. It is this acceptance that forms the basis of the Hindu idea of universal
brotherhood. But as antagonism increased between the two religions and resulted
in mutual hatred and enmity, it was fortunate that there came a group of religious
thinkers belonging to the Hindu Bhakti movement and the Islamic Sufi movement
to bridge the divisiveness between the two religious orders and establish love
and friendship, feelings of fellowship and fraternity among all people. The Sufi
movement was a result of Hindu influence on Muslim religious thinkers who
undertook an in depth study of Vedanta and the philosophy of Buddhism and
Jainism, the two offshoots of Hinduism.
Activity 5
Why are theBhakti movement and Sufi movements known associo-religious
movements?
The Sufi movement came to India two centuries before the Bhakti movement
and spread among the Muslims. The Chishtiya Sufi order was established in
India by Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti in the 12th century. He died in 1230. After
his passing, his disciples carried the order forward, spreading his message of
devotion to God and sulhe-kul (compassion and love for all). Notable among
them were Hazrat NiamuddinAuliya and hisfamous disciple Amir Khusro (1253-
1325), the Sufispiritual poet and musician who had a deep impact on the society,
literature and culture of India. Khusro is regarded as one of the champions of
India’s composite culture. He wrote many poems, ghazals, dohas, riddles and is
also credited with enriching Hindustani classical music by introducing Persian
and Arabic elements in it, and thus is known as the originator of the khayal and
tarana styles of music. He is regarded as the “father of qawwali” (the devotional
music of the Indian Sufis). The invention of the tabla is also traditionally attributed
to Amir Khusro and so also the sitar. Kabir was greatly influenced by Khusro
and some of his dohas are virtually translations of Khusro’s couplets. Other Sufi mystics were Khwaja Nizamuddin Auliya and Hazrat Baba Farid, both belonging
to the 13th Century.
Thus the 13th and 14th centuries saw the emergence and growth of the Sufi
movement in India. The Sufi movement as given above was a socio-religious
movement. The last Sufi of the Chishtia order and the last Sufi from Delhi,
Nasiruddin Chirag Dehli died in 1356. The Sufi message of suleh-e-kul had a
great influence on both the Hindus and Muslims alike. While some historians
claim the influence of Sufi on the Bhakti movement and others speak about the
reversal of influence – that of the Bhakti movement on the Sufi movement, there
is the established fact that compassion and sympathy for the downtrodden and
the poor stressed by both religious orders appealed to people of both religions.
Their message had a lasting impact in the collective psyche of the Indian masses.
It can therefore be said that the Sufi Movement from the 12th to the 14th centuries
and the Bhakti movement from the 15th and 16th centuries provided poetry the
highest degree of devotion and are unique in extending the respective religious
movements to inspire and articulate social messages.
Activity 6
What was the message of the two religious orders that had an appeal to the
masses belonging to both Hinduism and Islam?
3.4 LINK BETWEEN THE UPANISHADS AND THE QURAN
To understand the link between the Sufi and the Bhakti movement, let us look at
a few of the important aspects of Hinduism related to Advaita philosophy in the
Svetasvatara Upanishad:
Na tasya pratima asti
There is no likeness of Him.
Na samdrse tisthati rupam asya, na caksusa pasyati kas canainam.
His form is not to be seen; no one sees Him with the eye.
shudhamapoapvidham
He is bodiless and pure.
In the Quran, the main principle is that of ‘Oneness’. According to Islam, God is
singular (tawhîd), unique (wahid), the one and only one (ahad), and is all-merciful
and omnipotent. And according to the Quran, “No vision can grasp him, but His
grasp is over all vision: He is above all comprehension, yet is acquainted with all
things.”
From the above it is clear that there are common links between the Quran and
the Yajur Veda where both speak of a god, formless and who cannot be seen with
human eyes and He is the one and only one – unique and singular.
Activity 7
Explain the common link between Islam and Hinduism as evidenced in the
Quran and the Vedas.
3.5 BULLEH SHAH, THE SUFI MYSTIC AND POET
Though there is no authentic record, it is an accepted surmise that Bulleh Shah
was born in 1680. He was a Punjabi poet of the Sufi Muslim order, born in
Bahawalpur, Punjab , which is now in Pakistan. His ancestors had migrated from
Bukhara in modern Uzbekistan. His father, Shah Muhammad Darwaish, was a
preacher in a village mosque and a
teacher. His father later got a job in
Pandoke, about 50 miles southeast of
Kasur. Bulleh Shah received higher
education and became a student of the
prominent professors Ghulam Murtaza
and Maulana Mohiyuddin. His
spiritual teacher was the eminent Sufi
saint, Shah Inayat Qadri .
A large measure of what is known
about Bulleh Shah comes through
legends, and to that extent it is
subjective. He has himself contributed
a brief sketch of his life through his
writings. Other “facts” seem to have
been passed down through oral
traditions. Bulleh Shah practiced the
Sufi tradition of Punjabi poetry
established by poets like Shah Hussain (1538 – 1599), Sultan Bahu (1629 –
1691), and Shah Sharaf (1640 – 1724). Bulleh Shah was a contemporary of the
famous Sindhi Sufi poet, Shah Abdul Latif Bhatai (1689 – 1752), the legendary
Punjabi poet Waris Shah (1722 – 1798), of Heer Ranjha fame, and the illustrious
Sindhi Sufi poet Abdul Wahad (1739 – 1829), better known by his pen-name,
Sachal Sarmast (“truth seeking leader of the intoxicated ones”), and Mir Taqi
Mir (1723 – 1810) of Agra. He died in 1758 at the age of 77, and his tomb is
located in Kasur, Pakistan. He was a poet, humanist and a philosopher.
3.5.1 Bulleh Shah, an Apostle of Peace
Bulleh Shah was born at a time when the communal strife between Sikhs and
Muslims was high. He incurred the wrath of Muslims when he condemned the
murder of an innocent Sikh in retaliation for the murder of a few Muslims by
Sikhs. Violence, Bulleh Shah said, cannot be quelled by violence; on the contrary,
violence engendered violence. Similarly he counseled the Sikhs to give up their
campaign of hatred against the Muslims. But for his unorthodox advocacy of
peace and harmony among Hindus and Muslims, the Muslim clergy (the mullahs)
decreed that Bulleh Shah should not be given burial.
He was an apostle of peace which makes him a humanist. It is important to note
that even if one is a mystic, in search of God, s/he can also be a humanist, one
whose life is based on reason and common humanity, one who recognizes that
moral values are to be founded on human nature and experience alone and who
seeks solutions to the problems of fellow human beings in the world around her/
him. Bulleh Shah also hailed Guru Tegh Bahadur as a Ghazi (an Islamic title
given to a religious Muslim warrior).
Bulleh Shah’s writingsrepresent him as a humanist,someone providing solutions
to the sociological problems of the world around him even as he was constantly
searching for God. His poetry highlights his mystical spiritual voyage through
the four stages of Sufism: Shariat (exoteric path or external knowledge), Tariqat
( esoteric path or internal knowledge), Haqiqa (mystical truth) and Marifa
(mystical truth). Bulleh Shah has been able to address the complex fundamental
issues of life and humanity. Thus, many people have put his kafis to music, from
humble street-singers to renowned Sufi singers like the Waddali Brothers and
Abida Parveen, from the synthesized techno qawwali remixes of UK-based Asian
artists to the rock band Junoon. Bulleh Shah’s popularity stretches uniformly
across Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims, to the point that much of the written material
about this Muslim thinker is from Hindu and Sikh sources. Modern renditions
can be listened to in the songs Chhayya Chayya and Thayya Thayya.
Activity 8
Why is Bulleh Shah considered to be a humanist?
3.6 KAFI, A FORM OF SUFI POETRY
As a poet, Bulleh Shah wrote Kafis. Let us first understand what we mean by
Kafi.
Kafi is a classical form of Sufi poetry in the Punjabi and Sindhi languages which
flourished from the 14th to the 16th C. This period is known as the golden age of
Punjabi Sufi poetry. The verse form which Bulleh Shah primarily employed is a
style of Punjabi, Sindhi and Siraiki poetry used not only by the Sufis of Sindh
and Punjab, but also by Sikh gurus. The main theme of Kafi is the dialogue
between the Soul and the Oversoul – the created and the Creator. This is
symbolized by the dialogue between the disciple and his master (murid and
Murshid) , between the lover and his beloved. The latter translates into heroic
and romantic tales that stand as a metaphor for mystical truths, and spiritual
longing.
The Kafi is a poem in four stanzas – a musical composition with a rhyme scheme
and a refrain which is meant to be sung. Some say that the word Kafi has come
from the Sanskrit word kav (poetry) and kama (sensuality). But this does not
deny the possibility of its origin from the Arabic words kamil (perfection) and
kafa (grouping). Some believe that the word Kafi is derived from the Arabic
Kafa which means a group. The word kafi is also identified by many through a
raga in Indian classical music after which a thaat (the head of many ragas) is
named.
3.6.1 The Kafi Tradition
Punjab had its own literary tradition which was started by Fariduddin
Ganjshakar(1173-1266) . He was the first Punjabi Sufi poet whose poetry was
compiled after his death in the Adi Granth. Bulleh Shah practiced the Sufi tradition
of Punjabi poetry established by poets like Shah Hussain (1538 – 1599), Sultan
Bahu (1629 – 1691), and Shah Sharaf (1640 – 1724). Punjabi poetry was used
both by Sufis of Sindh and Punjab as well as by Sikh gurus. In contrast to
Persian poets who had preferred the ghazal for poetic expression, Punjabi Sufi
poets tended to compose in the Kafi.
Sufi poetry continued even after the 17th Century with well known poets like
Waris Shah (known for his great work Heer Ranjha; Sachal Sarmast, (1739-
1829) a Sindhi Sufi poet who wrote musical Kalam, discussions and debates
relating to Islamic theology as well as Kafis; Mian Muhammad Baksh, a Kashmiri
Sufi poet (1830-1907),known for his Sohni Mahival, and the multi lingual
Khawaja Ghulam Farid (1645-1901), known for his lyrics of ecstasy.
3.7 ‘KAFI 7’ BY BULLEH SHAH
Bulleya Ki Jaana Main Kaun
Bulleya to me, I am not known
Say Bulla, I know not who I am
I am neither a believer going to a mosque
Nor am I given to non-believer’s ways
I am neither clean nor unclean
Neither a Moses nor a Pharaoh
I know not who I am
Neither among the sinners nor the saints
I am neither happy nor unhappy
I belong neither to water nor to the earth
I am neither fire nor air
I know not who I am
Neither I know the secrets of religion
Nor am I born of Adam and Eve
I have given myself no name
I know not who I am
I belong neither to those who squat,
Nor those who are given to wandering
I know not who I am
I was in the beginning, I would be there in the end
Who could be wiser than me?
None else is primed of this secret
(Though) I know not who I am
(Translated by K.S.Duggal)
3.8 ANALYSIS OF THE POEM
The poem has a refrain “I know not who I am.” and seeks to unravel this riddle.
The riddle is one of the eternal and unsolved questions common to us all, relating
to one’s identity. Can any one of us give an answer to the question “Who am I?”
The poet has the name Bulleh Shah, but he wants to know, who is Bulleh Shah?
The self that answers the question as to who Bulleh Shah is, relates only to the
externalities. The Self that is deep within all of us is not known to us, as no one
born in this world knows where s/he came from, why they have been born, what
is the purpose of their coming into the world and where they will go after death.
It is a mystery to which none of our externalities- attributes, character, relationship
with others, daily existence comprising words and actions – provide the crucial
answer to the questions raised above whose purpose is to identify the inner,
deeper or the true Self.
Bulleh Shah says the name he subscribes to is the name given to him by his
parents but they are not and cannot be his true parents as they also do not know
who they are and where they had come from. But the truth is we all come from
God, who is our true parent.
The answer to the riddle ‘who am I‘ cannot be derived from our external attributes
such as being a believer or a non believer, a sinner or a pious person, a slave
driver like Pharaoh or a liberator like Moses…
The only answer to the riddle “Who am I” is: “I know I am ‘i’ but do not know
who the ‘I’ is, as the ‘I’, the inner Self, permeates and overarches the external
self ‘i ‘(Kindly note the distinction between “I” and “i”)
The poet then says “I know not who I am … Nor am I born of Adam and Eve”
All of us know only our earthly parents – but not God, our original ancestor, who
had created Adam and Eve and is, in that sense, the progenitor. The logical
reasoning for his ignorance about his identity is through yet another denial:
I belong neither to water nor to the earth
I am neither fire nor air
As human beings, we are aware of the five prime elements of Nature (pancha
bootham) – air, water, earth, fire and space (vayu, jal, bhu, agni and akash), but
we go far beyond these five perceivable elements. In this context, it would be
interesting to compare these lines with lines from the 19thC poet Wordsworth
who comes nearly six centuries later:
The Soul that rises with us, our life’s Star,
Hath had elsewhere its setting…
But trailing clouds of glory do we come
From God, who is our home:
Heaven lies about us in our infancy! (“Ode on Intimations of Immortality”)
Bulleh Shah offers yet one more reason as to why he does not know who he is:
I belong neither to those who squat,
Nor those who are given to
wandering
Whether he is moving about, active and mobile or whether he is rooted to one
place, passive and immobile, neither of the two states will give him the answer
as to who he is.
The last four lines state that the True Self has neither a beginning nor an end as
it is eternal.
I was in the beginning, I would be there in the end
Who could be wiser than me?
None else is primed of this secret
(Though) I know not who I am
When he has listed the reasons as to why he does not know his true identity, he
asks who else can know the secret of one’s birth, existence and death.
Activity 9
What does Bulleh Shah say about the ‘I’?
3.9 UNITY OF BEING: MEETING OFADVAITA AND SUFI PHILOSOPHY
This poem is a good example of the Unity of Being (Wahat-ul-Wajud), the concept
of mystical Sufis and which, as the phrase suggests, is about Monotheism of
Existence. Wujud (i.e. existence) here refers to Allah’s Wujud – where God and
his creation are not separate but one. Wujud is the unique Reality from which all
reality derives. The external world of reality consisting of tangible and sensible
objects is but a fleeting shadow of the Real (al- Haq), God – the eternal reality.
Whatever exists is the shadow (tajalli) of the Real and is not independent of
God. Advaita Vedanta and Sufism meet here and can be seen as the parallel of
modern psychological theory of the Collective Unconscious. Advaita means
‘Non-Dual’which refersto the tradition’s absolute monism.Two specific passages
from the Chandogya Upanishad provide a valuable insight into the foundation
of the philosophy of Advaita Vedanta that parallels Sufi metaphysics:
In the beginning, this world was just Being [i.e. Brahman] – one only, without a
second …And it thought to itself ‘Let me become many; let me multiply myself.
(Chandogya Upanishad 6.2.1-3)
By means of just one lump of clay, everything made of clay can be known: any
modifications are merely verbal distinctions, names; the reality is just clay.
(Chandogya Upanishad 6.1.4)
The unity between the true self and universal reality is indicated by the Sanskrit
language phrase tat tvam asi – you are that, i.e. you are that highest reality,
Brahman.
The Pantheistic monism of advaita and wahdat-al-wujud of the Sufis are
different expressions of the same view about Divinity, Man and the Universe.
The whole unity of the poem is to establish the impossibility of knowing one’s
true identity except for the fact that the “I” or the Soul is one with the Oversoul
– the merging of human consciousness with the divine consciousness, beyond
institutionalized facts of externalities.
Throughout ‘Kafi 7’ Bulleh Shah keeps giving examples using two poles namely
“neither”/ “nor” to reason why he cannot know hisidentity beyond what is known
to the world he is born into. This question, while it is addressed to himself,
Bulleya, is also addressed to every other human being as an extension of himself,
an understanding that it is common to all…
In ‘Kafi 7’ Bulleh Shah uses symbols which show his depth of learning. These
symbols, like Mosque, Adam and Eve, Moses, Pharaoh, purity and impurity, are
taken from variousreligions which make this poema secular text, beyond religions
and outward symbols.
3.10 LET US SUM UP
This unit introduced you to a sample of devotional poetry of the medieval period
of the Sufi tradition, composed by Bulleh Shah (Punjabi Sufi). We also discussed
the Bhakti and Sufi traditions and saw how the compositions of varied poets
from both traditions serve to emphasise the concept of India’s plurality that has
a strong thread of common thought and sentiment running through them. We
could also see how the Advaita and Sufi traditions echo each other when it comes
to philosophical concepts dealing with existence.
3.11 Aids to Activities
Activity 1: It mentions the word Bhakti and sets out what the word denotes.
Activity 2: Meera, Mahadevi Akka, Kabir were some of the poets. They can
be accessed in the original through a variety of Indian languages.
Activity 3: It focused on relationship between devotee and the Almighty;
emphasis on devotion; freedom to worship in whatever manner they
chose.
Activity 4: Starting from the South of India, the movement gradually spread to
all the corners of the country.
Activity 5: The two movements went beyond religion and offered a social
message.
Activity 6: Compassion and sympathy for the downtrodden and the poor.
Activity 7: Both speak of a god who is formless, cannot be seen with human
eyes and unique.
Activity 8: Attempts to provide solutions to sociological problems even while
seeking God.
Activity 9: The True “I” goes beyond all the externalities and is a mystery.
3.12 GLOSSARY
Adam and Eve : according to the creation myth of the Abrahamic
religions, Adam and Eve were the first man and
woman and the ancestors of all humans
Collective Unconscious : theory of Carl Jung, who relates it to a part of the
unconscious mind, shared by a society, a people,
or all humankind, that is the product of ancestral
experience
Ghazi : an Islamic term for a religious warrior
Humanist : one who has a strong concern for human welfare,
values and dignity
Monotheism of Existence : the belief in the existence of only one god that
created the world
Moses : a Hebrew prophet in 1300 BCE (before the
Common Era or BC) who delivered his people,
the Jews, from slavery under one of the Egyptian
Pharaohs. He led them to the Holy Land that
God had promised them. Moses led the Exodus
(in the Bible, the departure of the Israelites from
Egypt) of the Jews out of Egypt and across the
Red Sea, after which they based themselves at
Mount Sinai, where Moses received the Ten
Commandments
Old Testament : the first of the two main divisions of the Christian
Bible, corresponding to the Hebrew Scriptures as
distinguished in Christianity from the dispensation
of Jesus constituting the New Testament
Pantheistic : the belief that reality is identical with Divinity
Pharaoh : common title of the monarchs of ancient Egypt
from the First Dynasty (c. 3150 BCE) until the
annexation of Egypt by the Roman Empire in 30
BCE … Moses delivered The Jews from the
slavery of Pharaoh Thutmose II (1493-1479BC),
the fourth ruler of the 18th dynasty of Egypt
Primed : be fully prepared
Refrain : A comment or statement that is repeated
The Ten Commandments: Said to be given by God and were meant to serve
as principles of moral behaviour for the people.
They form the foundation of the moral code and
legal system of justice for Western Christian
civilization. Moses founded the religious
community known as Israel. “In the Judaic
tradition, he isrevered as the greatest prophet and
teacher, and Judaism has sometimes loosely been
called Mosaism, or the Mosaic faith, in Western
Christendom. His influence continues to be felt
in the religious life, moral concerns, and social
ethics of Western civilization, and therein lies his
undying significance.
3.13 UNIT END QUESTIONS
1) What is the meaning of Bhakti in Hinduism? How is the word used in the
Bhagvad Geeta?
2) What contributed to the fall of the Mughal Empire and why wasIslam hostile
to Hinduism?
3) Why is the Bhakti movement known as a socio-religious movement?
4) How did the Hindu and Muslim sects come together?
5) What is Kafi? List the elements of the Kafi style in Bulleh Shah’s poem
given in this unit.
6) Bulleh Shah is known to be an apostle of peace and a humanist. From the
brief biography given above, illustrate how he is both a pacifist and a
humanist.
7) Why does Bulleh Shah say he cannot know his identity?
8) Attempt a summary of the poem ‘Kafi 7’
9) Comment on the effective use of the two words “neither’ and ‘nor’in Bulleh
Shah’s poem.
10) How do you think Bulleh Shah is representative of the Bhakti/Sufi
movements?
3.14 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING
1) Chopra, RM. Great Sufi Poets of the Punjab, Iran Society, Calcutta, 1999.
2) Hawley,John. A Storm of Songs: India and the Idea of the Bhakti Movement,
Harvard University Press, 2015.
3) History of Sufi poets, folkpunjab.blogspot.com
4) Kishwar, Madhu. “Women Bhakta Poets”. Manushi, Manushi Publications,
1989.
5) Puri, JR. Bulleh Shah: The Love-Intoxicated Iconoclast, Radha Soami
Satsang Beas, 1986.
6) Schomer, Karine and McLeod, W. H. (eds). The Sants: Studies in a
Devotional Tradition of India, Motilal Banarsidass, 1987.
7) Shvetashvatara Upanishad. San.beck.org.
8) Smith, Paul. Bhakti Poetry of India: An Anthology, Createspace Independent
Pub, 2013
UNIT 4 BAULGAAN,AKKAMAHADEVIAND MEERABAI
Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Indian Religious Poetry
4.3 Rabindranath Tagore
4.4 Who are the Bauls?
4.5 ‘Baul Gaan’ (the Song)
4.6 Analysis of ‘Baul Gaan’
4.7 Akka Mahadevi
4.8 The Poem ‘Vacana’ by Akka Mahadevi
4.9 Interpretation of the poem
4.10 Meerabai
4.11 The poem ‘Mere to Giridhara Gopal’
4.12 Interpretation of the poem
4.13 Let Us Sum Up
4.14 Aids to Activities
4.15 Questions
4.16 References and Suggested Reading
4.0 OBJECTIVES
When you finish studying this Unit, you will
have learnt about the Indian religious poetry movement
appreciate the contribution of Baul singers to the Indian Bhakti Movement
understand the folk song, ‘Baul Gaan’ translated by Rabindranath Tagore
learn about Akka MahaDevi, the Kannada saint poet and understand her
poem ‘Vacana’
learn about Meerabai and understand her last Bhajan,
Mere tho giridhar gopal doosro na koi
Words in bold are explained in the Glossary
4.1 INTRODUCTION
In this Unit, we give you three samples of devotionalsongsfrom medieval Indian
poetry – one from Bengal, another from Karnataka and the third from Rajasthan.
The poems are ‘Baul Gaan’from Bengalifolk poetry, ‘Vacana’byAkka Mahadevi
and a ‘Bhajan’ by Meerabai.
This is a continuation of Unit 3 where you were introduced to the Bhakti and
Sufi movements in medieval India. You will now read about the compositions of
the ecstasy of these three Indian Bhakti singers in their quest for merger with the
Lord.
4.2 INDIAN RELIGIOUS POETRY
We have seen in the previous Unit (Unit 3) how the Bhakti movement was a pan
India movementstarting from the 8
th C in South India and spreading to the North,
East and West between the thirteenth and seventeenth centuries. We have also
seen how devotional poetry brought theBhakti movement and the Sufi movements
close to each other and how Sufi poetry continued well beyond the medieval
period into modern times.
The medieval period of religious poetry was both devotional and reformatory in
that it lifted the control of religion by the priestly class and made it accessible to
all and did away with the hypocrisy and irrational rituals that were practiced in
the name of religion. In India, religious poetry sung by individual poets was a
spontaneous rendering of the poet’s personal love for the deity and every poem
focused on the individual’s inner experience of devotion and ecstasy in the
presence of the Lord. The poems are expressions of complete love and total
surrender unto the Supreme Lord.
Bhakti poets of different regions wrote in their respective languages and thus
Indian religious poetry contributed to the development of poetry in Indian
languages. India enjoys a unique multi lingual status whereby languages in
different regions show a wholesome development that is reflected in the rich
Indian literature that has come down to us from very ancient times. In this Unit
we will give you samples of a Bengali poem, a Kannada poem and a Tamil
poem. This will help you understand the growth of literature in Indian languages
and in particular, the compositions ofsaint-poets of the Bhakti movement. These
songs were originally preserved in the oral tradition and later recorded for posterity
as written documents.
Activity 1
What do you think are the main characteristics of Indian religious poetry?
The history of devotional poetry in India dates back from the ancient texts of Rig
Vedic hymnsin 1200-900 BCE to songs and slokas(or prayers) that are composed
even today. It is to the credit of the Bhakti movement that it could produce the
largest number of devotional hymns and songs in praise of the Lord and which
were the spontaneous outpourings of the devotees’ inner experiences and their
ecstatic journey towards their final merger with the Lord. The stotras (or prayers)
were addressed mainly to Siva, Vishnu, Krishna and Devi (the Goddess) and in
our selection of three poets, we have a devotee of Siva, another of Krishna and
the third of the Supreme Lord. We have chosen two female poets and a group of
singers as samples of Indian religious poetry.
In South India, in the early medieval period between the 6th and the 8th C, there
were sixty three Saiva poets called Nayanars (teachers of Siva) and twelve
Vaishnava poets known as Alvars (those immersed in God) who through their
42 hymns inspired faith in the masses and influenced the Bhakti movement. It is to
be noted that most of these poets did not belong to the Brahminical class. Yet
another group of the South Indian bhakti movement was that of the Siddhas. In
Tamil, ‘siddha’ means ‘great thinker or wise man’ and in Sanskrit, it means ’a
perfected man’ – someone who has surrendered and is completely receptive to
God. Siddha poetry like the mainstream Bhakti poetry was also critical of
Brahminical rituals and practices and the pseudo religiosity that accompanied
them. Between the 10th and the 12th C, we have in Karnataka Virasaiva poets
who dedicated their songs to Lord Siva. Among them, the four greatest and
pioneering poets were Basavanna, Devara Dasimayya, Akka Mahadevi, and
Allama Prabhu. They composed vacanas, short free-verse utterances expressing
intense personal experience and sometimes trenchant criticism of what the poets
regarded as superstition and hypocrisy. We have analysed a ‘vacana’ by Akka
Mahadevi in this selection.
Activity 2
What are the main streams of Bhakti poetry of South India? What are the
special features of these forms of poetry?
Apart from South Indian bhakti poets, there were many contributors to bhakti
poetry from the rest of India. Among them were (i) Lal Ded (Kashmiri poet of
the fourteenth century) who was a woman devotee of Shiva (ii) Guru Arjun
with his compilation of Adi Granth (1604); its second edition was brought out
by Guru Govind Singh in 1708 with additional 115 hymns of his father, Guru
Tegh Bahadur (iii) the Sufi poets who wrote in Punjabi, Sindhi and Kashmiri,
and (iv) the Hindi poets, Tulsidas, Surdas, Kabir, and Meerabai. Also we have
Gurû Nânak (1469–1539), who founded Sikhism and composed poems revering
the formless God and criticizing superstitious practices. Mention should also be
made of the poetry of the North Indian yogins called Nath Panthis, who belong
to the same broad tradition as the Tamil siddhas. The most significant collection
of the Nath Panthis is attributed to Gorakhnath (eleventh century?), its semilegendary founder whose teachings pervaded North Indian religious thought in
the medieval period.
We have in this Unit discussed a Bhajan of Meerabai, a Rajput princess who
became a wandering saint totally devoted to Krishna whom she regarded as her
husband.Although she is believed to have spent the later part of her life in Dwarka,
Gujarat, and a considerable body of poetry ascribed to her exists in Gujarati, she
is more closely linked to her native Rajasthan and to its regional form of Hindi.
The story of Bengali bhakti poetry begins with a Sanskrit poet, Jayadeva, and his
master piece Gita Govinda that sings the drama of love between Krishna and
Radha. Then came Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486-1533) who developed the
Bengali Kirtan. The Bauls, unique to Bengal, were iconoclastic wanderers who
partook of the devotional poetry of both Hindu and Sufi mysticism and their
worship was exclusively through singing.
Two great Sanskrit poets appear in the second century CE. Asvaghosa is most
famous for the Buddhacarita, a biography of the Buddha in the form of a
mahâkâvya (lyric narrative). His contemporary, Matrceta, wrote beautiful Sanskrit
hymns to the Buddha. The seventh-century Chinese pilgrim Yi Jing reported,
“Throughout India everyone who becomes a monk istaught Matrceta’stwo hymns
as soon as he can recite the … precepts.” In the 7
th century, Santideva composed many stotras in praise of the Buddha and the Bodhisattvas (those with a high
degree of enlightenment) and expressed his dedication to the Buddhist path. There
also exists Jain poetry in Hindi and Gujarati, the most famous being the
Bhaktâmara Stotra of Manatunga, whose dates have been estimated to be as
early as the third and as late as the ninth century. Several Jain authors composed
both philosophical works and devotional poems. A large number of Jain poems
are known for their ornate verses. Religious poetry was prevalent in other parts
of the country as well.
4.3 RABINDRANATH TAGORE
Tagore, also known as “the greatest of the Bauls of Bengal” is also the discoverer
of the Baul songs. Tagore was greatly influenced by the
spiritual tenor of the Baul poems and was among the most
prominent writers to bring the Bauls to the notice of the
west. The Baulsong tradition reached its peak in the 19thC,
thanks to the English translations by Rabindranath Tagore.
It was through his efforts that the Baul songs were made
accessible to the West and the non Bengalis in India.
We give below the Nobel citation when Tagore was awarded the Nobel Prize for
Literature.
The extract is from Nobel Lectures, Literature 1901-1967, Editor Horst Frenz,
Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1969.This autobiography/biography
was written at the time of the award and first published in the book series Les
Prix Nobel. It was later edited and republished in Nobel Lectures.
“RabindranathTagore (1861-1941) wasthe youngestson of Debendranath Tagore,
a leader of the Brahmo Samaj, which was a new religious sect in nineteenthcentury Bengal and which attempted a revival of the ultimate monistic basis of
Hinduism aslaid down in the Upanishads. He was educated at home; and although
at seventeen he was sent to England for formal schooling, he did not finish his
studiesthere. In his mature years, in addition to his many-sided literary activities,
he managed the family estates, a project which brought him into close touch
with common humanity and increased his interest in social reforms. He also
started an experimental school at Shantiniketan where he tried his Upanishadic
ideals of education. From time to time he participated in the Indian nationalist
movement, though in his own non-sentimental and visionary way; and Gandhi,
the political father of modern India, was his devoted friend. Tagore was knighted
by the ruling British Government in 1915, but within a few years he resigned the
honour as a protest against British policies in India.
Tagore had early success as a writer in his native Bengal. With his translations of
some of his poems he became rapidly known in theWest. In fact hisfame attained
a luminous height, taking him across continents on lecture tours and tours of
friendship. For the world he became the voice of India’s spiritual heritage; and
for India, especially for Bengal, he became a great living institution.
Although Tagore wrote successfully in all literary genres, he was first of all a
poet. Among his fifty and odd volumes of poetry are Manasi (1890) [The Ideal
One], Sonar Tari (1894) [The Golden Boat], Gitanjali (1910) [Song Offerings],
Gitimalya (1914) [Wreath of Songs], and Balaka (1916) [The Flight of Cranes].
The English renderings of his poetry, which include The Gardener (1913), FruitGathering (1916), and The Fugitive (1921), do not generally correspond to
particular volumes in the original Bengali; and in spite of its title, Gitanjali:
Song Offerings (1912), the most acclaimed of them, contains poems from other
works besides its namesake. Tagore’s major plays are Raja (1910) [The King of
the DarkChamber], Dakghar(1912) [The Post Office], Achalayatan (1912) [The
Immovable], Muktadhara (1922) [The Waterfall], and Raktakaravi (1926) [Red
Oleanders]. He is the author of several volumes of short stories and a number of
novels, among them Gora (1910), Ghare-Baire (1916) [The Home and the World],
and Yogayog (1929) [Crosscurrents]. Besides these, he wrote musical dramas,
dance dramas, essays of all types, travel diaries, and two autobiographies, one in
his middle years and the other shortly before his death in 1941. Tagore also left
numerous drawings and paintings, and songs for which he wrote the music
himself.”
Activity 3
What was Tagore’s singular contribution to Baul songs?
4.4 WHO ARE THE BAULS?
Bauls are known as wandering minstrels (the term usually applied to medieval
singers). They hail from the eastern part of India, particularly from Bengal, Assam
and Tripura. Theirsongs are known for their religious content – love and devotion
to God – and are sung, following a musical tradition.
The Baul culture is a mix of the devotional bhakti streams that we see in both the
Islamic and Hindu cultures of the medieval period, and they have remained a
strong presence in Bengal till today. The Baul tradition was mainly an oral
tradition, inspired by the well known 12thC poet Jaydeva, the composer of Gita
Govind. It continued from the 14th to the 16th C when the Vaishnava Bhakti
movement was at its peak, declaring the unity of the heavenly and earthly loves.
Bengal has two large rivers flowing through the state – the Ganga and the
Brahmaputra. The Baul used the river and the boat as metaphors. The Baul
Gaan (the Baul song) uses a lot of metaphors, some of which are universal such
as “life is like a river.” The theme of the songs is about the inner quest to be a
part of the Divinity whence we have come and negates all formal visits to the
temples and mosques in search of God. This is a common phenomenon present
in the Sufi and Bhakti traditions.
Activity 4
What is the similarity between the Sufi tradition and the Baul songs?
4.5 ‘BAUL GAAN’ (THE SONG)
I am the boat, you are the sea, and also the boatman.
Though you never make the shore, though you let me sink, why should I be
foolish and afraid?
Is reaching the shore a greater prize than losing myself with you?
If you are only the haven, as they say, then what is the sea?
Let it surge and toss me on its waves, I shall be content.
I live in you whatever and however you appear. Save me or kill me as you
wish, only never leave me in other hands.
(Anonymous, translated by Rabindranath Tagore)
4.6 ANALYSIS OF ‘BAUL GAAN’
The Opening line “I am the boat, you are the sea, and also the boatman” affirms
the power of the sea and of the boatman steering the boat across the seas. The
boat has no power of its own to move. It is propelled by the boatman who rows
it through the waters. It is often said that neither the flute nor the harmonium
knows how to make music; it is the player who plays the musical instruments to
create the desired music. So isthe boat passive and rooted to its anchored position
till the boatman paddlesit through the waters. The sea is often used as a metaphor
for the flow of life. In one single line, the song distils the meaning of how the
boatman (God) steers us through life as we neither have the power nor the skill
to sail through life without His grace.
The next line “Though you never make the shore, though you let me sink, why
should I be foolish and afraid?” is a rhetorical question which has an in built
answer that we need not be foolish or afraid as we are steered through by the
boatman. Implied in this line is that life is always in the forward movement and
it never goes back to the past. Once the boat leaves the shore it does not return
even if it sinks in the sea. So are we forever on the move from birth to death, but
in our firm belief that He, (the boatman) guides us (the boat) through life, we
need not be afraid even if we do not return to the shore. The word ‘sink’ is not to
be misread as something calamitous, sinking in the sea is merging with Him, as
the next line reads: “Is reaching the shore a greater prize than losing myself with
you?” The phrase losing myself with you means merging with the Lord. The
rhetorical question has the answer that reverting nostalgically to the life left
behind is not as worthy of seeking as the becoming one with the Source one
comes from.
“If you are only the haven, as they say, then what is the sea?
“haven “ is a place of shelter, safety. By plumbing the depths of the sea, one
experiences and explores the haven, the safe shelter provided by God
Let it surge and toss me on its waves, I shall be content.
I live in you whatever and however you appear.
Save me or kill me as you
wish, only never leave me in other hands.
The metaphor used here is that of the waves and the sea. The waves are a part of
the ocean and are distinct from the ocean. But after their ebb and fall, they become
one with the ocean. Hence the singer says s/he lives in the Ocean of Grace – the
Lord and will be content so long as the Lord abides by him/her.
4.7 AKKA MAHADEVI
Akka Mahadevi, a saint poet who wrote in Kannada
belonged to the second half of the 12thC. Akka in
Kannada means elder sister. Akka Mahadevi was not
only a poet, but also a mystic and a social activist. She
was a contemporary of Basavanna, the founder of the
sect of Veersaivism. Veerasaivists are today addressed
as Lingayats. Veerasaivism has been a reformatory
socio-religious movement. From her childhood she was
initiated into the worship of Shiva and remained a
devoted worshipper all her life. The form of Shiva she
worshipped was known as Chennamallikarjuna, which translates as “The
Beautiful Lord, White as Jasmine.” Much of Akka Mahadevi’s poetry refers to
her vivid descriptions of her beautiful Lord. And indeed she always signed her
poems, O Lord White as Jasmine.” .This is an important feature of poems in
Indian languages where the poet’s signature is built within the poem. This is
seen in the pad, a form used by saint poets, which is the most influential medium
for the expression of devotion. The poet’s name is registered within the poem,
somewhere in the last one or two lines.
Though we have contradictory reports about her marriage to a local Jain King,
her spiritual acceptance of Shiva as her Lord made her renounce her worldly
life. She became a wandering mendicant and her devotion to Lord Shiva was
without the formal outer rituals associated with Shiva worship (for that matter
with the worship of any God ) Her only desire was to merge with her
Chennamallikarjuna and in her later years she retreated to a cave where she
gave up her earthly life and merged with her Lord. In her intense devotion to
Lord Shiva and single minded quest of Him she spurned the riches and comforts
of a palace, cut asunder domestic bonds, and set out as a wandering devotee
meeting with and overcoming many hardships on her journey to this final goal.
In addition, she had the gift of imaginative expression. A few of the outpourings of her experience are preserved for posterity in the shape of Vacanas “sayings”
in rhythmic Kannada prose. Her vacanas are characterized by intense feeling
and deep insight.
As stated above, Akka Mahadevi wrote in the vacana form, which can be briefly
described as a kind of free verse or prose poem with a rhythmic structure specially
evident in the sentence patterns. These vacanas are a good example of her total
devotion to Lord Shiva, unmediated by customs, traditions and rituals. In her
life and in her love for the Lord, we see a clear differentiation between dharma
and bhakti, where dharma emphasizes adherence to codified rituals while bhakti
focuses on one’sinner and fervent devotion to God, keeping aside the conventional
worship in practice in society. It is in this defiance of conventions and rituals that
Akka Mahadevi reveals her modernity. It issaid she had thrown away her clothes
and covered her body only with her long tresses, in a gesture of ultimate social
defiance against the male gaze. In the words of A.K.Ramanujan in his book
Speaking of Siva “The intense poems of personal devotion to a single deity also
question traditional belief systems, customs, superstitions, image worship and
even moral strictures, in verse that speaks to all men and women regardless of
class and caste… Her search is recorded in her vacanas as a search for her love,
following all the phases of human love as set forth by the conventions of Indian,
especially Sanskrit, poetry. The three chief forms of love – love forbidden, love
in separation and love in union are all expressed in her poems, often one attitude
informing and complicating another in the same poem. She remains a symbol of
women’s rights and dignity.”
Activity 5
Why do you think Akka Mahadevi gave up wearing clothing?
4.8 THE POEM ‘VACANA’ – BY AKKA MAHADEVI
I love the Handsome One:
he has no death
decay nor form
no place or side
no end nor birthmarks.
I love him O mother. Listen.
I love the Beautiful One
with no bond nor fear
no clan no land
no landmarks
for his beauty.
So my lord, white as jasmine, is my
husband.
Take these husbands who die, decay,
and feed them to your kitchen fires
4.9 INTERPRETATION OF THE POEM
Thisis a simple poem, with no complicated meaning to reach for. It is a penetrating
description of Siva, a deity, handsome, immortal and one who has neither birth
nor death. The poet says her love is unmediated – without the intervention of any
custom, tradition or convention which are laden with rituals and pseudo religious
formalities. She loves him for His beauty. Beauty is not to be interpreted as
solely a physical attribute because no one has seen Siva except as He appears in
one’simagination, inspired by passion and devotion. She compares Him to white
jasmine. The jasmine flower is usually associated with love. Jasmine also
symbolizes beauty and sensuality. In some cultures, it represents appreciation
and good luck. When used in religious ceremonies, jasmine represents purity
and the meanings vary depending on the culture and setting.
Here the poet associates jasmine with white colour. White jasmine flowers are
mostly used in art and literature as a symbol of purity and innocence. White
jasmine flowers are often used in wedding ceremonies where these symbolic
meanings are perfect for the occasion. White jasmine is a perfect gift for a
person whom one respects and has a high regard for. Hence white jasmine isfor
Akka Mahadevi, none other than Siva.
The last three lines strike a jarring note though they reflect a realistic view of
life. The poet brings in a contrast between the Immortal Lord Siva whom she
regards as her husband and mortal humans who die and decay and are consigned
to fires. Fire is known as “Agni’, the Vedic God of Hinduism. Agni is a symbol
of piety and purity. Agni is an expression of two kinds of energy i.e. light and
heat and thus is designated as the symbol of life and activity. The mortal beings
consumed by fires is a reference to their being transformed from the gross to the
subtle, destroying their ignorance and delusions.
“Agni is symbolism for psychological and physiological aspects of life”, states
Maha Purana section LXVII.202–203. There are three kinds of Agni inside every
human being, according to this text – the krodha-agni or “fire of anger”, the
kama-agni or “fire of passion and desire”, and the udara-agni or “fire of
digestion”. These respectively need introspective and voluntary offerings of
forgiveness, detachment and fasting, if one desires spiritual freedom and
liberation.
“Feed them to the kitchen fires” is thus a reference to purifying the mortal beings
through fire. Agni has two forms –the Jatavada, associated with Knowledge and
Brahman and Kravyada, the fire that cremates the physical body and the funeral
fire that recycles it to be reborn – a process that continues till such time all the
three kinds of fire within oneself – fire of anger, fire of passion and desire and
fire of digestion are quelled and the spirit is purified.
Activity 6
What, according to Akka Mahadevi, is the difference between Siva and
mortal husbands?
4.10 MEERA BAI
Meera Bai is a household name in India. There are very few who have not heard
Meera Bai’s bhajans,depicting her love for Lord Krishna, her ecstasy in reaching her lord’s (Krishna) feet and her final merger with the Lord.
She was one among the great saint poets of the Bhakti
movement, born in 1498 and who gave up her earthly
life when she merged with her Lord in 1546 at an early
age of 48. She was born as Princess of Mewar but she
had a lifelong engagement with Lord Krishna, whom
she addresses as Giridhar Gopal and whom she regarded
as her husband. In fact, her parents had initiated her into Krishna worship through
a simple marriage ceremony with a Krishna statue when she was a child. As she
grew up and composed songs in praise of Lord Krishna, in song after song, she
described herself as Krishna’s ‘daasi’, (‘devotee’, though the literal translation
is ‘maid’ or ‘servant’). Her marriage to a prince at a very early age, his death due
to wounds sustained in a battle, her refusal to be a part of the royal household
and her moving out of the royal palace, first to Brindavan and later to Dwaraka,
where at the end she miraculously disappeared (seen as her merger with the
Lord) sum up her life story. She composed a large number of songs dedicated to
Lord Krishna, though scholars are divided as to how many were her own
compositions. The significant fact is that her songs were the spontaneous
outpourings of her devotion – ‘bhakti’. Some bhajans of Meerabai have been
rendered into English by Robert Bly and Jane Hirshfield as Meerabai: Ecstatic
Poems.
Meerabai is truly an embodiment of divine love. From her early years she had
renounced all the luxuries of the royal palace and dedicated herself to the worship
of Krishna. She was constantly in dialogue with Krishna. She hailed Krishna as
her Beloved. Her songs were from her heart and were a spontaneous expressions
of her ecstatic experiences in her contemplation of Krishna. She ate and drank,
she slept and woke up with Krishna on herlips. She wasindeed one of the foremost
embodiments of Premabhakti (divine love) and an inspired poetess that ever
walked on earth.
One of her celebrated songs is “Paayoji maine Ram Ratan dhan paayo”
(today I got the most precious wealth of Lord Rama’s
name. The poem is a testament to Meerabai’s devotion to the Lord and her
renunciation of all earthly material wealth.
Activity 7
What was it that sparked Meerabai’s devotion to Lord Krishna?
4.11 THE POEM ‘MERE TO GIRIDHARA GOPAL’
We give you the last Bhajan of Meerabai before she merged with Lord Krishna
at the Krishna Temple in Dwaraka. This is a famous and popular Bhajan and
celebrates the ultimate merger of Meerabai with Lord Krishna. To make it easy
for you and to enjoy it fully, we give you both the Hindi version and the English
translation of her last bhajan:
Mere to giridhar gopal doosro na koi
50 There is none other than Giridhar Gopal for me
Jaake sar mor mukut mero pati soi
He who wears the peacock feather on his turban, is my husband
taat maat brat bandhu aapno na koi
All other relationships like father, mother, brother, friends – none exist for me
(except my husband, Giridhar Gopal)
chaandi lai kul ki kaani kaha karilai koi
I have stepped across the line of my dynasty but who can do anything about it
Santan dhing baithi bhaiti lok laaj khoi
I have lost dignity in the eyes of the people by being in the company of saints,
the wise men who sit in bliss lost to all worldly ways
Chunari ke kini took audh linhi loi
I have torn my colourful sari into pieces and have draped myself with the ochre
coloured one
Moti moonge uthar banmala poi
Having flung away the pearls and corals, I wear a garland of wild flowers
Asuvan jal seenchi seenchi prem beli boi
The waters of my tears have sown a creeper of love
Ab tho bel pheli gayi aanand phal hoi
Now that creeper has borne the fruit of bliss
dood ki mathaniya bade prem se biloi
I have churned the curd with great love
maakhan jab khadiliyo chaach piye koi
You get the butter and someone else gets to drink the buttermilk
Bhakt dekh raaji hui jagat dekhi roi
The devotee sees this and is joyful while the world is upset
Daasi meera laal giridhar taro ab mohi
Your servant, Meera, oh beloved Giridhar, you are MINE, now!!!
4.12 INTERPRETATION OF THE POEM
Thisis a simple poem that ends with the affirmation that the merger of the devotee
(daasi meera) with her Giridhar Gopala (Lord Krishna) is through and over. The
poem reveals not only Meerabai’s open proclamation that Giridhar Gopala is her
husband, it also reveals her defiance of the world which refuses to acknowledge
her acceptance of the heavenly Lord as her husband. She has no use for human
relationships as she seeks her one and only bonding with the divine lord. She has
renounced colourfulsaris and pearls and coral necklacesin exchange for Krishna’s
garland of wild flowers. For her, the wreath of love she has woven for Lord
Krishna with her tears of happiness is more precious than all worldly goods.
Krishna is alwaysshown as a great lover of butter. Meerabaisaysshe has churned
the curd with great love to separate butter from it. With love she offers it to her
lord while other human beings will have to be content with the buttermilk that
remains after the butter is removed.
According to Meera legend, on Krishna’s birthday, (Janmashtami) at the temple
of Krishna in Dwarka,she sang ‘Oh, Giridhari, are you calling me, I am coming’.
To the awe and astonishment of everyone in the temple who were watching,
there was a light which enveloped her and the doors leading to the sanctum
sanctorum closed on their own. When the doors opened again, Meera’s saree
was seen enveloping Lord Krishna’s idol and the people assembled could hear
her voice to the flute accompaniment of Lord Krishna. Meera thus merged with
Krishna in Dwaraka
Activity 8
What is the significance of Meerabai giving up her jewels and colourful
clothes?
4.13 LET US SUM UP
This unit has three sections on three poems. We learnt about Baul singers and
the contribution of Rabindranath Tagore’stranslations which brought thistradition
out into the public eye. We also read a baul song and looked at how it could be
interpreted in the Bhakti tradition. We went on to read about Akka Mahadevi, a
saint-poet of the Bhakti period and read and analysed a Vacana, a Kannada
literary genre that reads like a prose poem, suffused with metaphors. At the end
of the unit, we spoke about the life of Meera Bai and attempted to understand
and experience the ecstasy of her last Bhajan.
4.14 AID TO ACTIVITIES
Activity 1: Devotional, reformatory and multilingual
Activity 2. Saivite by Nayanmars, Vaishnavite by Alvars and Siddha-intense
personal ecstasy and criticism of superstitions and hypocrisy that had
become the practice among people in place of true religious worship
Activity 3: Making baul songs popular to the West and to the non Bengalis in
India through his translations
Activity 4: To fulfill the inner quest to merge with the Divinity
Activity 5 : As a symbolic surrender of worldly life
Activity 6: Siva is neither born nor does He die whereas mortal husbands die and
decay
Activity 7: Her parents’ gifting her with a small statue when she was a child and
who they referred to as her husband
Activity 8: Her act signifies her total surrender to her Lord and a turning away
from material pleasures
4.15 QUESTIONS
1) Write a brief note on Indian religious poetry.
2) Identify and explain the metaphors used in the song ‘Baul Gaan’.
3) Attempt a summary of the poem ‘Baul Gaan’.
4) Illustrate this poem as a meeting of the Bhakti and Sufi traditions.
5) Why did Akka Mahadevi renounce her worldy life?
6) Explain why the poet uses the phrase “the white Jasmine” for her husband,
Lord Siva.
7) What is the symbolic meaning of ‘fire’ used in the last line?
8) Trace the strands of devotion in the three poems that you read in this unit.
4.16 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING
1) Bäumer, Bettina. Kapila Vatsyayan (1988) Kalatattvakosa: A Lexicon of
Fundamental Concepts of the Indian Arts. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 225–
226
2) ————————— Siddhas, The Poets of the Powers (London, 1973)
3) Beyer, Stephan: The Buddhist Experience: Sources and Interpretations
(Encino, Calif., 1974).
4) Chakravarty, Uma. The World of the Bhaktin in South Indian Traditions –
The Body and Beyond’ Manushi. 50-51-52: 25, 1989
5) Gonda, Jan (ed.) History of Indian Literature, (Wiesbaden, 1973 .
6) Guptara, Prabhu S., (ed). The Lotus: An Anthology of Contemporary Indian
Religious Poetry in English. Calcutta, 1988.
7) http://www.poetseers.org/spiritual-and-devotional-poets/india/mahadevi
8) Ramanujan, A.K. Speaking of Siva, Penguin Classics
9) Ramanujan, A. K., Rao, Velcheru Narayana, and Shulman, David Dean.
(eds. and trans). When God Is a Customer: Telugu Courtesan Songs by
Ksetrayya and Others. Berkeley, Calif., 1994.
10) Ramaswamy, Vijaya (1992-01-01). “Rebels — Conformists? Women Saints
in Medieval South India”. Anthropos.
11) Shulman, David Dean. The Wisdom of Poets: Studies in Tamil, Telugu, and
Sanskrit. New Delhi and New York, 2001
12) Tharu, Susie J.; Lalita, Ke (1991-01-01). Women Writing in India: 600 B.C.
to the early twentieth century. Feminist Press at CUNY.
13) Winternitz, Maurice. A History of Indian Literature, 2 vols. (Calcutta, 1927–
1933), particularly volume 2, on Buddhist Literature and Jaina Literature.
14) Zvelebil. The Smile of Murugan (Leiden, 1973), (includes chapters on both
bhakti and siddha poetry)
Block-2 Language Politics Hindi, Urdu and English Block-2
Block
2
Language Politics: Hindi, Urdu and English
UNIT 1 5
Understanding the Nature of Language
UNIT 2
‘Ghazal’ by Amir Khusrau and ‘Hindi’ by Raghuvir Sahay 16
UNIT 3
M.K. Naik and the Issue of Language 28
UNIT 4
‘Mother Tongue’ by Padma Sachdev and ‘Passage to
America’ by K. Ayyappa Paniker 39
BLOCK 2 LANGUAGE POLITICS: HINDI, URDU AND ENGLISH
This Block will consider the question of language per se as also Hindi and Urdu
in the Indian subcontinent, making special references to Indian writing in English.
It will acquaint the learner with the complex circumstances in the twentieth century
Indian context that shaped the role of communication among the larger population.
By reading parts of an essay that grappled with the dialectic of struggle against a
colonial regime, the learner will understand the questions that are posed regarding
the political and ideological preferences that might be made while spreading
education and propagating ideas. The poems discussed are vitally linked to these
concerns so that the learner will have an informed view regarding the politics of
language.
UNIT 1 UNDERSTANDING THE NATURE OF Language LANGUAGE
(In view of Excerpt from ‘Introduction: A Conspectus’ in A House Divided: the
Origin and Development of Hindi/Hindavi by Amrit Rai)
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 About the author: Amrit Rai
1.3 Excerpt: Understanding Hindavi
1.4 Discussion
1.5 Khusrau and Hindavi
1.6 Language, Culture and Power: The case of Hindavi
1.7 Let Us Sum Up
1.8 Aids to Activities
1.9 Glossary
1.10 Unit End Questions
1.11 References and Suggested Reading
1.0 OBJECTIVES
In this unit, we shall consider the question of language per se as also Hindi and
Urdu in the Indian subcontinent. You will be acquainted with the complex
circumstances in the twentieth century Indian context that shaped the role of
communication among the larger population. When you read parts of an essay
that grappled with the dialectic of struggle against a colonial regime, you will,
with the help of the points raised in the essay, understand the case for appropriate
language-use in our country.
Words given in bold throughout this unit are explained in the Glossary at the
end.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Let us, at the outset, come face to face with an issue that is of prime importance
concerning communication generally, and connecting members of society in a
thread of unity particularly. The first relates to saying something in words that
are sound patterns denoting a view about the world in which we live. We call it
language and that is a part and parcel of our existence. Language is a human act
in which the mind plays an active part. The study of such an act is known as
linguistics, the science of language. The second that concerns uniting people,
fulfils a social purpose. In it we perceive the social sense, the urge to live in a
bond that will strengthen us as well as create an atmosphere of goodwill and
friendship. It deals with the role that language may play in life, and how it may
add richness to our existence. Thus, we know how we handle questions of culture,
ideas and relationships. Let us reiterate – language is defined to gain clarity so
that we understand its nature. Further, under this head, we have information about the way ideas are structured. The starting point is sound patterns which
later evolve into units of impressions and ideas. Still later, when we confront
problems of repetition and being stuck to certain notions, the study of language
may assist us in sorting out word-entanglements. But this theoretical endeavour
is pursued because we realise that it has a purpose beyond mere study. That is
where society is brought in and we start looking at language from the point of
view of usefulness. In this unit, we shall engage with the twin issues with respect
to the use of Hindi.
Activity 1
In your opinion, based on your reading of the above, how is language and
its study relevant to society?
1.2 ABOUT THE AUTHOR: AMRIT RAI
Amrit Rai was a prolific Hindi novelist, a critic and a translator. He is renowned
in academic circles for his definitive biography of Premchand, Qalam ka Sipahi,
which won him the Sahitya Akademi Award in 1963 and later, the Soviet Land
Nehru Award in 1971. He also wrote several novels such as Dhuan, Sargam,
Hathi ke Dant, etc. He translated Shakespeare’s play Hamlet into Hindi, and
wrote critical works such as Nai Sameeksha and Vichardhara aur Sahitya.
Versatile in many languages, he also wrote one of the most significant works on
the Hindi-Urdu debate in English, A House Divided: The Origin and Development
of Hindi/Hindavi.
1.3 EXCERPT: UNDERSTANDING HINDAVI
Before we move further in pursuit of these aspects and comprehend how social
life involves us in the working of a language, let us take a look at the following
argument that Amrit Rai presented in one of his books, A House Divided. I quote
a passage from the beginning of a chapter titled “A House Divided.” This offers
a comprehensive view of the issue we are discussing in this unit. The passage is
as follows:
A House Divided
The present work proposes to be a study of the earliest origins of the language
Hindi/ Hindavi, and an investigation into the causes that led to its division into
two separate languages, modern Hindi and modern Urdu.
Sometimes, this word ‘Hindi’ is also used in a generalsense, as noted by Grierson:
It is a Persian, not an Indian word and, properly signifies a native of
India, as distinguished from a ‘Hindu’ or ‘non-Musalman’ Indian. …
In this sense, Bengali and Marathi are as much Hindi as the language
of the Doab.
However, at various places Khusrau (1251/54-1325) uses the word ‘Hindi’ in
the specific sense of the language, and that, naturally, the language of NorthWestern India with which the Muslims first came in contact in the Punjab and
then in Delhi. Speaking of this Hindi language Khusrau had occasion to comment:
I shall be wrong if I do not say what I know to be true: the Hindi word
is in no way inferior to the Persian. With the exception of Arabic,
which is ahead of all languages, it is better than all the others. For
example, the language of Ray and Rum (places in Iran and Turkey
respectively) are, after careful thought, found to be inferior to Hindi.
Then, further reinforcing his opinion:
If you ask me about the expressive power of this language—do not
think of it as less than that of any other.
Elsewhere, referring to Masud Sad Salman, an earlier poet, Khusrau says:
No other prince of poetry, before now, had three Divans. I am the
only one who has, so I am verily the king of my domain. True, Masud
Sad Salman too, is credited with three Divans, one each in Arabic,
Persian and Hindavi, but I am the only one who has three such
collections in Persian alone.
Speaking of the same poet, Masud Sad Salman, Mohammad Aufi says:
He has three big collections of poems—one in Arabic, another in
Persian, and a third in Hindi.
It is to be noted that Khusrau and Aufi refer to the same language as Hindi and
Hindavi. It would thus be safe to assume that the two words are interchangeable.
Therefore, I shall also, in the course of this study, use the terms Hindi/Hindavi
for the language under review; and if in the interest of brevity ‘Hindi’ alone is
used, it is clearly to be understood that I use it in exactly the same sense as did
Aufi and Khusrau, and that it is not intended to mean modern or standard Hindi,
or what Grierson calls High Hindi.
It would seem that this use of the word Hindavi is much the same as Gilchrist’s
‘Hinduwee’:
Hinduwee I have treated as the exclusive property of the Hindoos
alone and have therefore constantly applied it to the old language of
India, which prevailed before the Moosulman invasion and in fact
now constitutes among them the basis or groundwork of the
Hindoostani, a comparatively recent superstructure composed of
Arabic and Persian.
I advisedly say ‘much the same’, because Gilchrist’s basic characterisation of
the language as ‘the old language of India which prevailed before the
Moosulman’s invasion’ is acceptable but with some important reservations. First,
it does not seem right to describe Hinduwee or Hindavi as ‘the exclusive property
of Hindus alone.’ Some of the greatest poets of Hindi-Hindavi are Muslims.
Secondly, to refer to Hinduwee as ‘the old language of India which prevailed
before the Moosulman invasion’ seems to imply that the development of
Hinduwee or Hindavi came to a stop after the ‘Moosulman invasion’. This was
not so. As we go along and trace the development of this language we shall see
that it had a natural and quite uninterrupted growth until several centuries after
the Muslim invasion.
In the light of the foregoing remarks, the present study is, in the first place, a
research into the earliest origins of Hindi/Hindavi and,secondly, a socio-linguistic
inquiry into the causes that led, at some point in time, to its division into two
separate languages – standard or High Hindi and standard or High Urdu as we
know them today, and also as they are known in the Eighth Schedule of the
Indian Constitution.
However, their recognition as two separate languages under the Constitution
need not deter linguists from questioning the scientific validity of their separation.
For example, Gyan Chand, a noted Urdu scholar, says:
It is absolutely clear that Urdu and Hindi are not two separate languages.
To call them two languages is to belie all principles of linguistics and
to deceive oneself and other…Even though Urdu literature and Hindi
literature are two different and independent literatures, Urdu and Hindi
are not two different languages…Enumerating Urdu and Hindi as two
languages in the Indian Constitution, is political expediency, not a
linguistic reality.
Activity 2
Do you think that it isright to characterise Hinduwee or Hindavi as exclusive
to Hindus?
1.4 DISCUSSION
First, let us summarise the passage. Initially, says Amrit Rai, the word “Hindi”
denoted the country India – anybody who lived in India could be called Hindi
with the same meaning that “Indian” had. Thus, a person was Hindi and a language
such as Tamil or Marathi was Hindi. But, “Hindi” also denoted the Hindi language
that was spoken in Northwest India. This was the case, said Amir Khusrau, to
whom the language existed before the Muslim invasion occurred. The name
given to the language was, however, “Hindavi” or “Hinduwee.” The two words
were interchangeable. Khusrau also asserted that from the point of view of use
and expression, Hindavi was the best language in the world barring Arabic. Soon
after, Rai says that the Muslim invasion did little to Hindavi except putting it
into a creative mode which, indeed, contributed to its growth. As such, Hindavi
did not stagnate but kept its pace of evolution in the coming centuries. Later, in
the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, it entered a new phase and became Modern
Hindi, or what came to be called High Hindi.
What about Urdu? In Rai’s opinion, Modern Hindi and Modern Urdu are one
language, they cannot be separated since they share the history of Hindavi with
which they are vitally connected. In this sense, the two words did not do much
except lead one to believe that it was not one but two languages. In this, there is
a catch, says Rai. Whereas the language is one, literature written in it has gone in
two directions and resulted in two distinct literatures – Hindi literature and Urdu
literature. They are separate from each other and each enjoys a distinct identity.
Do you see how the argument presented by Rai has become subtler? The two
literatures have separate sets of words to compose states of mind and express
cultural norms – these are linked with their separate identities. Also, the literatures
use separate scripts, Devanagari in one case and Persian in the other. This
combination of factors has come handy, suggests Rai, to those who dabble in the
political arena for pursuing their limited interests, both social and cultural.
At this juncture, a comment on the passage quoted above would be in order. This
will help us, too, in laying bare the context in which Rai’s argument is located.
Consider how at the outset, the word ‘Hindi’ is problematized by use of the
epithet ‘modern’ to give each language a different face. Rai is aware that his
argument would gain relevance if it referred to a context, that which was
mentioned at the initial point. This means that modern Hindi and modern Urdu
have assumed different shapes, distinguishable from each other in a long historical
process. This suggestion should be borne in mind so that the discussion remains
on track. Thus, principles of living are asserted as invariably exerting pressures
on specific sections of society at a specific time. There is also a clear hint in the
quoted passage that through reference to the roots of the two languages, we can
identify the source of culture affecting communication.
Activity 3
In spite of springing from a more or less common source, why is it that
Hindi and Urdu literature have evolved separately?
From this general point in the passage, we are soon taken to the next point that
George Grierson (b. 1851), the famous linguist made regarding the history of the
word. Grierson was a British India administrator particularly associated with the
Linguistic Survey of India. Mark the expression “native of India” that has
connection solely with India as a country, not with the religion Hindu or Muslim.
Indeed, this is the crux. ‘Hindi’ is used in the passage as denoting India’s natives,
as equivalent of Indian. As a word, it signifies that all languages used for
communication in India are Hindi. Later, when reference is made to Hindi as a
language, it enjoys association with Doab, the place where it is spoken. The
distinction will throw a subtler light on the issue.
1.5 KHUSRAU AND HINDAVI
How fascinating it is to note that Amrit Rai’s opinion and that of Amir Khusrau
meet so well with regard to Hindi! Amrit Rai quotes Amir Khusrau to establish
his point more firmly and says that Hindi or Hindavi as a language had immense
power and potential to communicate.
On his part, Khusrau has used the word “expressive power” in the context of
comparing the two languages – Hindi/Hindavi on the one side and Persian on the
other. Khusrau is so enamoured of the capability of Hindi that he explicitly places
it on a par with Persian, a classical language and, therefore, long established for
its wide acceptance. Khusrau goes on to iterate that Hindi is indeed superior to
Persian since it could embody with great effect the intent and force of the one
who used it. Note the phrase “prince of poetry” that suggests the ability of the
person who decides to express himself through poetry.
There are two things that impel Khusrau to revere the poet – the sense of beauty
that resides in the poet’s heart, inspiring her/him to compose a poem and, the
skills that a poet brings into play through one language in preference to another.
Is it vocabulary, richness of phrases or flexibility inherent in a language that
makes it worthy of praise? It appears that in the case of Hindi, Khusrau sets store
by the rootedness in the actual life of a community as well as a multiplicity of
dialects that a language derives its strength from. We see this argument in the
case of Khusrau’s own poetic compositions one of which we shall consider in
Unit 2 of this block where we shall bring in the interplay of a variety of languages
that are woven together to create a work of unparalleled beauty.
Khusrau takes pride in saying that he is the only poet who has three Divans in
Persian, a feat that no other poet of his time has equalled or surpassed. Quite
clearly, this achievement qualifies him to pass judgment on the capability of one
or other language. Why does Khusrau state that his choice of language for asserting
its linguistic superiority is Hindi, not Persian? The reason is that Persian had
characteristics of a classical language that was good for coining new words but
had the limitation of elitism. It had no worthwhile contact with the common use
of language on the street, so to say. For this reason, being tied to fixed rules and
principles, it could not grow and change with time to suit new conditions and so
a powerful language known as Hindavi established currency and Persian quietly
moved to the scholars and the court.
The idea central to the debate on language was its communicability to the largest
number of people. But along with number, it was necessary to gauge the
vocabulary and the length of linguistic reach. Even as Urdu and Hindi were
eligible candidates for the job, each faced a hurdle in terms of ease of use. Urdu’s
base was its adoption by the common people living in cities and small towns, yet
it tilted heavily towards Persian words among the urban intelligentsia and the
elite. Hindi employed Sanskrit words assiduously to distinguish it from Urdu.
Oddly enough, both ignored the common speech imbued with functional aspects
that ordinary people spoke. It clearly worked for the educated elite who stressed
subtlety and nuance more than basic intent.
Also, in Urdu as well as Hindi, writers have one position on the issue and scholars
or analysts another. Writers, for instance, aim to articulate and express, whereas
scholars are driven by formulating and arguing. This reflects concretely in the
linguistic conduct of one or the other. Add to this the attitude of the political
activist who caters solely to the person on the street. Amidst this complexity of
approaches, the answer lay in the spoken language carrying the energy of the
dialect. To be sure, nearness to the dialect appeared the answer. Thus, subtle and
nuanced expression would have to give way to the common functional use. Such
a requirement necessitated neither Urdu nor Hindi but Hindustani that looked
towards both for inspiration and focused on easy and effective communication
to the larger number. Political leaders, reformers and propagandists and activists
chose for their campaigns what could be loosely described as Hindustani. It was
thought that Hindustani would facilitate exchange even in those areas that were
out of bounds for Urdu and Hindi like Gujarat, Maharashtra, eastern Bihar and
Odisha, where Hindustani played the role of linking people of one region with
those of another. In the obvious sense, such a view might appeal to the activist
and the writer, but it left the thinker and analyst cold. Certainly, a Gandhi or
Premchand would support Hindustani; the rest, however, would stick to their
specific approaches rigidly. It might yet be said to the credit of the Urdu lobby
that during discussion, they veered round to Hindustani gradually. The Hindi
lobby, however, remained firm on their stand favouring Hindi.
Activity 4
What is the language that is spoken by a large number of Indians today as
well as used in modern Hindi films – Hindi, Urdu or Hindustani? Why do
you think this is so?
1.6 LANGUAGE, CULTURE AND POWER: THE CASE OF HINDAVI
It makes sense that a language taking shape through cultural ups and downs and
becoming an effective means of communication finally should be adopted to
preserve time-tested norms. The vocabulary it picked up from active social usage
contained seeds of growth and evolution that would ensure continuation with
the change-oriented past. They would also equip its new users with skills of
learning and experimenting – so useful for taking society forward.
Yet, there are hurdles on the way. A vast country with a rich variety of ideas and
attitudes is deeply conscious about identity. It would think twice before accepting
policies and strategies proposed by distantly situated intellectuals. The national
movement had a dynamism of its own; it was broad-based and highly sophisticated
in terms of sorting out needs of the specific context. The leadership had an eye
on an integrated India and they sought guidance from the desired unity of people
against a common enemy. The Khari boli in its Urdu-Hindi combination had
proved to be an effective tool to expand the nationalist message opposing the
colonial regime. The aim indeed was political and ideological, not aesthetic.
Meanwhile, writers felt bound to the medium in which they were active – writing
is addictive since it makes inroads into the subconscious layers of the writer’s
mind. They sought identity in the medium of expression and quite significantly,
they saw a part of their self not just in word-use but also in the script. We should
remember that poets, fiction writers and dramatists, while playing a role in the
arena of literature, earned credit from the readers’ appreciative response. Soon,
particularly in the nineteen twenties and thirties, they felt deflected from the
nationalist aim and toyed with authorial prospects of success. That is why the
debate about language, script and vocabulary intensified around this period.
Wasn’t there also a chunk of cultural thought that was double-edged? It sought
direction in religious-cultural appeal on one hand, that was divisive, and
conversely looked for the answer in nationalist-secular ideals on the other. The
problem is well articulated by E.V. Ramakrishnan in the following observation:
Language is the site where, very often, social, cultural and political
battles are fought in India. Alternatively, one may say that sociopolitical conflicts invariably acquire cultural and linguistic overtones,
necessitating negotiations with and through languages. Some of these
fault-lines that cause fissures and ruptures run deep and will have to
be factored into the discussion of the shifts of our cultural terrains.
(Ramakrishnan 57)
He states unequivocally that the context is India-specific. There might be, in our
country, clashes, but why “social, cultural and political battles”? If postIndependence, the country aimed to establish a solid democratic base on which
differences could be expressed for building consensus, why battles? The second
thing rearing its head is the shift of cultural issues to social and political fields.
This means that subjects such as language become a cause for socio-political
tensions in society.
Ramakrishnan sees language as power. In the conventional understanding of the
term, language is taken in the sense of a means of communication. In the twentieth
century language was interpreted as an act that involved use of signs to forge
concepts about the life around an individual. It became thus a means to construct
knowledge. The first query then would be whether knowledge is power or a part
of the social process where power is created and wielded.
Seen objectively, language has economic ramifications – it is linked with specific
groups getting a chunk of jobs when one or other language acquires a national
character and becomes a national language. Add to this the fact that in India in
the twentieth century under British rule, English had created a middle class that
enjoyed power and privilege through it. The form of power manifested in
influence, clout and role of language-based policies in an emerging economic
scenario. Without going into the nitty-gritty of details, we might think of the
upper middle class wielding enormous power in the formation of policies at the
centre and in the states. Elitism was the recipe that the upper echelons in our
country relished. There is no doubt that policies we are talking of left an imprint
on writing and production of books for schools and colleges and for general
consumption. Since all this required economic resources for profitable investment,
retention and development of English appeared the best bet
Activity 5
In what way can language be seen as power?
Looking at the journey covered by knowledge so far, we might assume that
knowledge has given humans and societies a special capability to effect changes
in the surroundings. If the face of the world has changed unrecognizably, it is
because of the mental capacity of humans and language is linked firmly with
knowledge. Regarding ideology, we notice that societies over the world remain
active in constructing and using social thought on a big scale in a mode that
works as a system of ideas, and as we have observed, it does not matter whether
the system is wrong or right till it serves one or other purpose. Such a system is
considered ideology, and since it is neutral to wrong or right depending on whose
purpose it serves, its joining up with society’s power structure assumes dangerous
implications. Language is not neutral, it is itself ideology in the practice of
adoption and use in a situation. In the second unit of this block we will discuss
Raghuvir Sahay’s poem ‘Hindi,’ and this issue of ideology inherent in the social
working of language will be taken up. Let us say that the issue touches a
multiplicity of factors in the working of an organised social structure. This is
what Hindi writer Premchand said in precise terms in his controversial essay
‘Urdu, Hindi and Hindustani’:
The fact is that India’s national language can neither be Urdu that heavily
draws upon Arabic and Persian words that are unfamiliar and not in
common use and is burdened with them, nor Hindi that borrows the
difficult vocabulary of Sanskrit. If the partisans and supporters of these
two languages stand before each other and exchange views in their
respective literary languages, neither group would perhaps make sense
of thatspoken by the other. Only that language shall qualify for becoming
the national language that has the base of general comprehensibility –
that which all make sense of with ease. Why would such a language
bother that a certain word be dropped since it originated from Persian,
Arabic or Sanskrit? The only criterion it would follow would be that of
the ease with which common people will follow it. And the common
12 people come from Hindus, Muslims, Punjabis, Maharashtrians, Gujaratis, and all others. If a word, a phrase or a term is popular among
the masses, it cares little about their origins, where it emerged or came
from. And this is Hindustani. The way the English have English, the
Japanese have Japanese, Iranians have Irani and the Chinese have
Chinese, the national language of Hindustan would appropriately and
necessarily be Hindustani alone…India’s national language is neither
Urdu nor Hindi but Hindustani that is understood all over India, and
spoken, too, in a very large part of it, even though not written as such.
And if by chance, one wrote (what was spoken), the litterateurs of both
Urdu and Hindi would show him the door. What is really proving an
obstacle in the spread of Urdu and Hindi is the love of distinctness of
each. Whether we write in Urdu or Hindi, we write not for the common
man, but for a limited section of society. And this is behind the
unpopularity of our literary writing. It is indeed true that in no country
are written and spoken languages the same. The English we read in
books or newspapers is not spoken anywhere. Even the educated do not
converse in the language used in books or newspapers. Still more, the
ordinary masses speak an altogether different language. Yet, in England
every educated person is expected to grasp the written language, and do
speak if need be. The same we wish to happen in India. (Premchand.
101. My translation).
The case of the great Hindi debate stands compounded by cultural-political
compulsions cited by Alok Rai in his Hindi Nationalism. For him, the interests
of specific social groups became more influential than the concerns of relevance
and efficacy of the required medium. The terms of Rai’s argument are asfollows:
The fundamental conservatism of the mahajani classes, as well as their
need to evolve a new language of status – in addition to the sensibilities
and proclivities of the newly-educated savarna intelligentsia that we
have encountered already – are an important determinant of the complex
cultural formation that is indexed by the name “Hindi”…What substitutes
for the lost radical energy is a kind of high-minded moralism. Of course,
like all real phenomena, this one too must be over-determined, deriving
not only from the sanctimoniousness of the mahajani patrons but also
from the contrastive relationship with the Urdu-Muslim world of
aristocratic indulgence – and even, at a purely literary level, with the
erotic riti-kavya that is Braj Bhasha’s dominant mode. (Rai 98-99)
The issues suggested above range from class and caste divisions to the values
that are projected through activities based on language use. The inter-mix of
these engages the attention of thinkers and scholars in our midst. The most
important reference point of language use is at the same time the life lived by
common masses who pursue their goals within the political framework. The
expression “complex cultural formation” is the challenge that Hindi and Urdu
face today. That underpins the subject of the book from which the main passage
of discussion in this unit was taken – A House Divided. It pertained to whether
something tangible could be done to cure the malady of division our society is
visited by, particularly on the question of language.
Activity 6
How can language be considered an ideology?
1.7 LET US SUM UP
In this unit, we examined the issue of language politics linked to Hindi and
Urdu. What emerged in the discussion is that the two are so close in their origins
and roots that they cannot be considered different or unconnected, to the extent
that they can indeed be called inseparable. Where a language was seen as a
medium that played a positive unifying role during India’s national movement,
Hindi or Urdu were both in the fore-front. But the literary writing they fostered
split into two parallel streams giving an identity colouring to the language they
were written in. A solution could be sought in the interests of the common people
for whom both language and literary writing are envisioned as domains; hence
the internal characteristics of language/languages and their links with one or
other classical languages could be kept out of the purview. In their place, we
should consider an easy and effective linguistic medium. As such, an open and
ever-evolving language denoted by the term Hindustani could be considered a
viable option. Amrit Rai attempted to form a unified view of Hindi in the modern
context and marshalled many arguments to put forth a perspective of utility
concerning language-use. When the struggle for India’s independence from the
British colonial stranglehold began in the opening years of the twentieth century,
a language was needed to spread the message of equality. Indeed, it could be
only that language which was spoken by a sizeable chunk of people and had an
ethos of diversity and the urge to learn. Other related factors also came into
consideration and contention arose mainly between Hindi and Urdu. The debate
about this question was sharp in the nineteen twenties when the movement against
British imperialism had intensified. Many scholars joined the debate from the
opposite sides of the issue and presented opinions on various aspects ranging
from society, politics to culture.
AIDS TO ACTIVITIES
Activity 1: Language also has a social purpose.
Activity 2: It would be wrong to come to that conclusion as some of the greatest
poets of Hindi-Hindavi were Muslims.
Activity 3: The two literatures have evolved separately, with differentscripts and
set of words and the expression of cultural nuances.
Activity 4: Hindustani is used because it has more fluid boundaries and can act as
a linking language between people of various regions.
Activity 5: Language is power because it has economic ramifications.
Activity 6: It is an ideology because of the policies leading to the adoption and
use of a particular language for a specific purpose.
GLOSSARY
Dialectic : the logic that considers opposites aslinked and feeding
upon as well as fighting with each other.
Divan : collection of poems
Doab : literally, area between two rivers, particularly, the area
between Ganga and Yamuna in Uttar Pradesh and Sutlej and Beasin Punjab, denoting composite culture
and inclusiveness.
Elitism : exclusivist approach confining itself to the selected
few.
High Hindi : the established Hindi that hassetstandards of effective
expression and enjoys wide appeal.
Hindustani : a language that prides itself in commonness and dayto-day use, borrowing freely from current linguistic
usage and sticks to functionality. It consciously shuns
vocabulary of classical languages – Sanskrit, Persian
or Arabic.
Khari boli : also known as Kauravi or Dehlavi. A straightforward
and earth-bound way of expression; a dialect of
Hindustani of which standard Urdu and Hindi are the
different registers.
Sanctimonious : superior; smug
UNIT END QUESTIONS
1) What is the difference between Hindi and Hindavi?
2) Discuss the cultural use of Hindavi.
3) Do you think language is connected to power? Give examplesto substantiate
your answer.
4) Comment on Amrit Rai’s understanding of Hindavi.
5) What were Khusrau’s view on Hindavi?
REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING
1) Gorakhpuri, Firaq. Urdu BhashaAur Sahitya. Lucknow: Uttar Pradesh Hindi
Sansthan, 1962.
2) Karat, Prakash. Language and Nationality Politics in India. Delhi: Orient
and Long man, 1973.
3) Kumar, Krishna. Political Agenda of Education. New Delhi: Sage, 1991.
4) Orsini, Francesca. The Hindi Public Sphere: 1920-1940. New Delhi: Oxford,
2009.
5) Premchand. Sahitya Ka Uddaishya. New Delhi: S.K. Publishers, 1988.
6) Rai, Alok. Hindi Nationalism. New Delhi: Orient Longman, 2001.
7) Rai, Amrit. ‘Introduction: A Conspectus’ in Kumar, Sukrita Paul. Ed. Cultural
Diversity, Linguistic Plurality and Literary Traditions. New Delhi: Oxford,
2015.
8) Ramakrishnan, E.V. in Sridhar, M. and Sunita Mishra. Ed. Language Policy
and Education in India: Documents, Contexts and Debates. London:
Routledge, 2017.
9) Sharma,RamVilas.BharatKiBhasha Samasya.NewDelhi:Rajkamal, 1978.
10) Singh, Kripa Shankar. Hindi-Urdu-Hindustani. Delhi: Prasangik Prakashan,
1992.
UNIT 2 ‘GHAZAL’ BY AMIR KHUSRAU AND
‘HINDI’ BY RAGHUVIR SAHAY
Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Khusrau – the Man of Literature
2.3 A Reading of Khusrau’s ‘Ghazal’
2.4 Khusrau’s Poem as a Composition in the Classical Mode
2.5 Viewing the Poem as a Ghazal
2.6 Implications of Translation
2.7 Ghazal as an Art Form and its Interaction with Society
2.7.1 Creativity – the Primary Motive
2.7.2 Celebrating Union with the Lover
2.8 ‘Hindi’ by Raghuvir Sahay
2.8.1 Questioning Certain Attitudes
2.8.2 The Bewildering Stance
2.9 Background of the Indian National Movement
2.10 A Comment on ‘Hindi’
2.11 Let Us Sum Up
2.12 Aids to Activities
2.13 Glossary
2.14 Unit End Questions
2.15 References and Suggested Reading
2.0 OBJECTIVES
In this unit, our aim is to consider in detail the two poems in your course, ‘Ghazal’
by Amir Khusrau and ‘Hindi’ by Raghuvir Sahay. The discussion will bring forth
the requirements the two literary forms met at the time they were composed. We
shall emphasize those points that connect the poems with our own time when
debates about language use have been carried on in view of relevance and role.
By the end of this unit, you will have a basic idea of the issues raised regarding
the use of language. You will know that they pose questions regarding the political
and ideological preferences we might make while spreading education and
propagating ideas. You will see how the appeal of these poems was vitally linked
to their content and concerns.
Words given bold in the unit are explained in the Glossary at the end.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The ‘Ghazal’ taken up in this unit was composed more than seven hundred years
ago, in the early medieval period in India. It was a new art at that time and
16 followed a distinct rhyme scheme as well asthematic convention. The appeal of the ghazal was because of its focus on delicacy of feeling and its inherent
musicality. The other poem taken up for discussion in this unit, ‘Hindi’, was
written in the nineteen fifties. Separated from each other by more than seven
hundred years, the two poems enjoy some common strands. The consciousness
about the nature of literary writing and its role is one important thread that they
share. Equally, they are self-reflexive – they use words and phrases with care.
The writer of ‘Ghazal’ combines Persian, Hindi and Braj deftly in the same line
and creates a rare sense of beauty. The writer of ‘Hindi’ is metaphorical to the
core. In one breath, he talks of language, politics and nationalism, weaving them
together subtly. It is to be iterated that poetry and other forms of literature yield
appropriate meaning only when their writers are seen as repositories of social
norms and culture and receive credit and importance for their artistic feats.
2.2 KHUSRAU – THE MAN OF LITERATURE
Dear student, let us first talk in general about the poet Amir Khusrau and attempt
to link him to his ghazal that is in your course. Khusrau’s ghazal carries the
influence of Sufism. (You have been reading about Sufism in the previous Block).
He wrote mainly in Persian and was equally conversant with the local Braj Bhasha
tradition that left its mark on his poetry. For this reason, he is considered the
pioneer of ‘Hindavi,’ an emerging dialect close to life on the street. He brought
together the sufistrains, Persian poetic forms and dialects of the Avadh region in
his works. Khusrau’s poetry deviates from the typical court poetry written in his
day to please patrons and kings alike. His ghazals do not carry amplification of
conventional literary forms. In fact, his poetry is intimate, carrying the simple
spontaneous elements of folk poetry. Khusrau followed the Sufi tradition and
wrote poetry closer to the emotions and experiences of common life.
Khusrau in his ghazals takes on a feminine persona and refers to his poet friend
Amir Hasan Sanjari as his lover. The present ghazal is a case in point. The poem
evokes the love tradition and the emotion (‘rasa’) love-in-separation that was a
part of the ancient Indian aesthetics. He says in the ghazal, “Talk to me with your
eyes; dear heart, I cannot bear the sorrow of parting”. This is an essential trait of
Sufi poetry written in the early medieval period where ideas of Ishq carried
resonances of ardent love. This love was, however, shared between the subject
and god and sometimes transferred to fellow human beings who were equal
participants in the quest for mystic union. For Khusrau in the present context,
the emotional bond between friends is an example of experience much like that
between lovers and it may be viewed as an extension of the frenzy of divine Sufi
love. Sufi poets often used secular tales of love and incorporated them in their
poetry. For instance, Jalaludin Rumi (1207-73) used the epic Laila–Majnu tale
to express his love for God. Madness (a concept familiar to you from your reading
of the previous Block) associated with this love also finds expression here. The
idea of self-annihilation known as Fanah and suffering that is dear to Sufi saints
is borrowed by Amir Khusrau and is made to represent his human-centred
approach. Khusrau captures the intensity of human sentiment and at the same
time remains sensuous in his descriptions. Take for instance the expression –
“Long as tresses the night of parting”. He gives his love a human form. The night
without the lover is as dense and enveloping as a woman’s tresses. On the other
hand, the “the day of love is short as life”. The poet suffers the pangs of separation
and reiterates the longing to see the beloved in “If I see not my love, O friend,
how can I spend dark nights of grief?” The language of the ghazal is simple. The lines alternate between the Persian and the Braj asif the poet were translating his
emotions from Persian to Braj and vice versa. It also projects the spontaneous
flow of the poet’s feelings that are not inhibited by any one language and freely
moves in and out of the two languages. Still, the two languages add different
meanings to the context of the poem while maintaining its lyrical quality and
adding variety of speech.
Activity 1
What do you understand by the word ‘lover’in the context ofAmir Khusrau’s
poem and Sufi poetry in general?
2.3 A READING OF KHUSRAU’S ‘GHAZAL’
Now, that you have a general idea of the poet and his work, let us first read the
ghazal written in Urdu by Amir Khusrau (1253-1325) that goes as follows in
translation:
Ghazal
Forget me not, the sorrowful,
Talk to me with your eyes;
Dear heart,
I cannot bear the sorrow of parting,
Keep me well within your heart.
Long as tresses the night of parting,
The day of love is short as life,
If I see not my love, O friend,
How can I spend dark nights of grief?
Two magic eyes with a hundred charms
Have put my sad heart’s rest to flight;
Now who would care to go and tell
Dear love my sad and lonely plight?
As a candle lit, as an atom struck
No sleep in my eyes, no rest in my heart
Banished, alas, from that moon’s grace
He sends no news, nor shows his face.
On the day of love, for truth, Khusrau
The loved one tricked me and went away
If I could find him, I will keep
Him in my heart with love always.
(translated from Urdu by Ahmed Ali)
Interpretation
See what the poet observes in the beginning—he becomes one with the male
lover and tells the woman that she has become forgetful of late, and that there is
something that engages her mind. What can it be? We are made to think that
preceding this situation, the woman has lost interest in the immediate
18 surroundings. But she at least can speak with her eyes, since in certain situations
eyes talk more eloquently than the tongue. In response, the woman’s eyes reveal
the fact that forgetfulness is the result of parting with her lover-husband. This is
followed by a suggestive simile, comparable picture of the fact with the day and
the night—the day is short since one is in the company of others, whereas the
night is long since one is then alone. Also, see that night is black as the hair of a
woman. It is communicated through the suggestion that the woman’s hair is long
as the night is long. This is in passing. The fact, however, remains that dark
nights do not come to an end because of the pain caused by the lovers parting
and because of which the woman cannot sleep. The question looms large in the
imagination of the reader. In the words of the woman, “How can I spend dark
nights of grief?”
Think of the persona (hidden behind the eyes) changing with movement of the
ghazal. First it was the man. For a brief period, however, the eyes become of the
woman-lover, possessed by him for use, because of which the rest of the woman’s
heart has taken flight and gone away from her. In that moment of the dear one’s
departure, the heart’s rest alone is the lover. For this reason, the woman is lonely
and not lonely at the same time. Consequently, the woman’s plight is as of “a
candle lit,” as of “an atom struck,” and with “no sleep in my eyes, no rest in my
heart.” We may ask, why so, why has such a thing come to pass? To this, the
poet’s answer merged with the woman’s is: The man-lover “sends no news, nor
shows his face.”
2.4 KHUSRAU’S POEM AS A COMPOSITION IN
THE CLASSICAL MODE
Khusrau’s poem is of the woman’s helpless misery caused by separation from
the lover. In such a situation, she can neither sleep nor be at peace with herself
when awake. At the same time, the woman’s anguish intensifies the effect of
love suggested by the incident of the lover’s leaving. Mark that the strong
statement of the bonding between the two brings out beautifully the feeling the
woman has for her lover and the way she would have enjoyed her time in his
company. This is effected as much through her words as the pictures woven into
her utterance—of the tresses, the dark night, and the lighted candle. Indeed, the
three objects have their own stories to tell, of their association with sensuous
mingling of the two lovers in moments of intimacy.
As said in the beginning of the comment, the ghazal as a poetic form is meant to
paint a scene of sensuous experience that celebrates human bonding. In it, the
thematic content is conventional but the poet uses images that lend freshness to
the representation. We might locate in the lines a discipline that classicism uses
to capture the mood of a love-situation.
Finally, Khusrau’s use of words and images is a fine example of evocative
language enriched by the context of love and longing. The emotionality crafted
in the lines is closer to the body of the woman and her lover than would be the
case if the poet planned to raise the level of meaning through abstraction. The
feeling here is more earthy than ethereal, with each phrase denoting that which
is required to denote the loneliness of the woman. Never for a moment does the
description leave the plane of the real woman and man. Likewise, the poet-persona
has remained stuck to a simple innocent woman in common village surroundings.
In the English translation, we notice a conscious adherence to the diction bereft
of ornamentation. This was exactly the case in the original version where Khusrau
used the Awadhi dialect.
2.5 VIEWING THE POEM AS A GHAZAL
Here, we look at the poem from the angle of “ghazal” as a literary form. You
might be wondering as to why it is given this name. In the literal sense, the word
stands for beauty and innocence enshrined in the looks and conduct of a female
deer, the word for which is “ghazala.” The transparent nature of the eyes of the
deer is used in literature to signify the purity of gaze of the young woman whom
the amorous male desires as a companion. With such a friend by his side, the
lover will give vent to his softer feelings. The relationship between the young
and handsome male and his lover, will project a view of romance and longing.
These are indeed the features of poetry in general. Specifically, in the case of the
ghazal form, the expression will attain heights of imaginative wonder and magic.
We may regard this to be the main purpose of the poet attempting a ghazal that is
entirely devoted to the theme of love which is considered synonymous with beauty
traditionally. If you apply this description of the ghazal form to the poem given
above, you may reach the conclusion that human life attains nobility and
gentleness through literature, and for this reason, poetry is used to create the
aura of sensuous pursuit of beauty. Let me ask this question squarely of you:
“Does one not like to talk about sweetness in a relationship?” In fact, the same is
enjoyed when one watches a drama or a film. From this general point, we shall
later turn to the ghazal as a poem in which feelings are depicted through wordpictures of states of mind and language use.
Activity 2
Try to read this poem in the original. Why do you think Khusrau would
combine two or three languages or dialects while composing ‘Ghazal’?
2.6 IMPLICATIONS OF TRANSLATION
While engaging with this poem, we are conscious that it is a translation from the
original Urdu into English. We have also to remind ourselves that the English
translator aims to adhere to an already existing expression. It is not expected that
a translator will take liberties with the depiction and edit or change the original
composition to create an effect. Let me say that this is precisely the difficulty
with this ghazal. In its translated form, the poem does not let us know, for instance,
that the writer Amir Khusrau made use of three languages in each line—Persian,
Urdu, and Awadhi. That was an artistic feat, a miracle. We do not see that in the
translation and read the text as an articulation of a lover’s emotions by the poet
in the chaste medium of English. I draw your attention to this fact of anomaly
between the original text and its translated version. For me, this might serve the
purpose of focusing upon language in literary expression. Amir Khusrau blended
the three languages to forge an imaginative response guided entirely by
requirements of a beautiful representation.
Nevertheless, we might pick up certain words from this poem to realise that the
poet is intent upon telling us particularly about the subtle emotion of love, and
the woman pining for union with her lover who has gone away from her. Thus,
we have three persons involved in the situation that is at the centre of this poem—
the poet, the woman and the figure of the man in the background. It is against
this backdrop, that we must read this poem by Amir Khusrau.
2.7 GHAZAL AS AN ART FORM AND ITS
INTERACTION WITH SOCIETY
Most of what we have said about Khusrau’s ghazal so far is from the point of
view of form. Under such a view, we have considered aspects of composition,
linguistic use, voice of the lover, emotions of a woman in a situation of distance
from her lover-husband and the overall beauty of poetry in the hands of a master
composer of the ghazal. Let us also consider the question of social and cultural
surroundings in which literature operates and performs a specific function. For
instance, Khusrau lived at a time when society was in a state of turmoil, mainly
at the political level. Conditions in India were such that no single approach as
that of the governing authority would be accepted as final. There would be voices
in India in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries that laid stress on originality and
freedom and take to ways of enjoyment and self-indulgence. Let us bear in mind
that freedom of this sort available to the artist and thinker reflects peculiar facets
of social living.
2.7.1 Creativity – The Primary Motive
People become creative and approach their horizons differently than those that
were visualized by their predecessors. We might call it an act of courage, but it
also takes us towards challenges that are hidden from the common eye. Apart
from being an act of courage, the creative endeavour in the time of Khusrau also
pointed towards the penchant for learning. The early medieval India had social
sections that mixed with unknown and lesser known people with a sense of
curiosity and pleasure. No section or group of people was seen as a threat and
challenge. Even as there would be competition in trade, workplace and
neighbourhood living, people welcomed novelty of thought. Ghazal as an art
form could serve to reveal the urge to change one’s way of expressing oneself.
Otherwise strictly hierarchical, the society of the time left the common masses
in the lower rungs to fend for themselves and be what they wished to be. Among
people of the upper strata, too, there would be a vision of beauty that crossed
boundaries of accepted standards. The present ghazal offers a pretty picture of
coexistence of languages struggling to forge ahead of othersin effect and appeal.
2.7.2 Celebrating Union with the Lover
As we have noticed, the present ghazal is not merely about a lonely woman
thinking of her lover, but also about a common urge to celebrate union with a
lover. The physicality of this ghazal brings forth in clear terms the honest emotion
of bonding that is lyrical and sensuous. Khusrau, the man from the upper echelons
derives a great deal of pleasure from visualizing words and phrases and the
element of senses embedded in them to join in mutuality with the lower sections
of people in his own time. There is no doubt that the early medieval India was a
place where people met one another on equal terms at the level of imagination. It
is noteworthy that the ghazal under discussion is a means of high entertainment
at a time when India was opening up to the world beyond its boundaries in
productive and exchange areas as also in regions of culture and art.
2.8 ‘HINDI’ BY RAGHUVIR SAHAY
Raghuvir Sahay (1929–90) was a Hindi poet, short-story writer, essayist, literary
critic, translator, and journalist. He was the chief-editor of the political-social
Hindi weekly, Dinmaan from 1969 to 1982. He was awarded the 1984 Sahitya
Akademi Award in Hindi for his poetry collection, Log Bhool Gaye Hain (They
Have Forgotten, 1982).
Before going any further, let us take a look at the poem:
Hindi (Raghuvir Sahay)
We were fighting
a language battle to change society.
But the question of Hindi is no longer simply a question
Of Hindi—we have lost out.
O good soldier,
Know when you’re beaten.
And now, that question
Which we just referred to in connection with the so-called language battle,
Let’s put it this way:
Were we and those on behalf of whom we fought
The same folk?
Or were we, in fact, the agents of our oppressors—
Sympathetic, well-meaning, well-schooled agents?
Those the masters are slaves.
Their slaves are those who are not masters.
If Hindi belongs to masters,
Then in what language shall we fight for freedom?
The demand for Hindi
Is now a demand
For better treatment—
Not rights—
Put by the agents
To their slave masters.
They use Hindi in place of English,
While the fact is
That their masters
Use English in place of Hindi—
The two of them have struck a deal.
He who exposes this hypocrisy
Will dispose of Hindi’s slavery.
This will be the one who, when he speaks Hindi,
Will show us what simple folk really feel.
(Translated from Hindi by Harish Trivedi and Daniel Weissbort)
Interpretation
The title as well as the language of this poem refers to the Khari Boli that came
to be known later as Hindi. Raghuvir Sahay chooses the metaphor of the battle in
his poem ‘Hindi’ to highlight the language debates specifically in postIndependence India. The period was marked by several internal feuds and fights.
Since the fifties belonged to the post-Independence era, the poem had to carry
the burden of the government policies related to language, culture and literature.
Sahay speaks of the battle for language supremacy in which Hindi was supposed
to receive the status of an official language but did not. Sahay critiques, through
the poem, the entire exercise of fighting over language that in a way betrayed the
idea of a unified India visualized by writers and thinkers. He seems to direct our
attention to the larger cause of this phenomenon urging us to look beyond
provincial linguistic identities. As he says in the poem, “the question of Hindi is
no longer simply a question of Hindi” suggesting that the issue is more complex
than it appears.
2.8.1 Questioning Certain Attitudes
Sahay questions the values of those who pitch battles and delude “soldiers,”
forcing them to enter the field of the battles. In the end, it isthe soldier who loses
his life – not those in power. He puts the question squarely – “Were we and those
on behalf of whom we fought the same folk?” The answer is obviously in the
negative. However, Sahay wishes to make the reader aware of this dimension.
He seems to suggest that the people on whose behalf we fight the battle (in this
case for language) are very different from us; they have political clout and power.
Ordinary folks whom he calls “soldiers” are pawns in battles. Sahay doesn’t go
soft in his critique and further poses a sharp question— “Were we, in fact, the
agents of our oppressors—sympathetic, well-meaning, well-schooled agents?”.
The statement appears to be a paradox—how can agents of oppressors be well
meaning? It is in fact loaded with suggestion. First, it strikes the note of selfcriticism which could extend to criticism of the class that the writer belongs to –
the “we” in the sentence makes the poet subject as guilty of the act as the reader.
Secondly, Sahay is making a theoretical and complex point that is generally not
taken up in poetry for it makes it terse and abstract. Still, Sahay viewsthe middle
class as complicit in the act of violence perpetuated by the oppressive upper
class. This, in the opinion of the writer, is carried out not necessarily by active
engagement by middle class individuals. They become agents of oppressors the
moment they adopt the approach of sympathy and harmony that facilitates the
status quo leaving little scope for disruptions and change. The middle class’s
desire to live a decent, peaceful and well-meaning life outlines that they are in
fact well-schooled, cultured people who would not enter the murky world of
politics. The critique offered by Sahay here is scathing and betrays the position
of the writer who doesn’t believe in taking the comfortable middle path of life.
Further, Sahay plays on words and deliberately twists and turns phrases. Does he
wish to remain ambiguous and if so why? Is it the complexity of the idea that
makes his phrases convoluted? Take for instance the line, “those who are masters
are slaves. Their slaves are those who are not masters”.
Activity 3
Read the poem once more. Why has the poet chosen the battle metaphor?
2.8.2 The Bewildering Stance
The reader may feel bewildered by the first half itself—how can masters be
slaves? What Sahay seems to suggest is that the master needs the slave more to
get the ‘dirty’ work done and, in this sense, is dependent on (is a slave of) the
worker/soldier/ordinary person. But does the slave know that? S/he doesn’t and,
therefore, Sahay says that s/he remains a slave and doesn’t become a master.
This poem is a criss-cross of postures taken by the poet. It is a difficult poem to
make sense of, since it has consciously avoided making a direct statement. At
every step, the poem apparently goes against the previously expressed stance.
For this reason, it may be necessary for us to remain ever alert while reading it.
We notice in the beginning that rhythm is deliberately avoided by the poet. The
first two lines are one single sentence broken as if casually to make two lines out
of it. Put straight, it would read like, “We were fighting a battle to change society.”
The abruptness of such a beginning wakes us up. We as readers wonder whether
we were fighting a battle some time back, and whether it was aimed to change
society.
2.9 BACKGROUND OF THE INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT
As we stretch our memory, we are reminded of India’s national movement that
ended in 1947 as well as of the issue in the nineteen fifties of accepting Hindi as
the national language. Post the country’s Independence, for many years we had
a tumultuous phase of debate around the question of accepting and evolving a
national language. The process had indeed begun in the nineteen twenties in the
wake of carrying the message of liberation to the common masses. In those days,
it fell on Hindi to assume the responsibility of communicating the political and
social ideas in a simple spoken medium. Also, the Hindi of the period was not
equipped with word and phrase to effectively articulate the rising aspirations of
colonized India for opposing the British colonial power. Quite significantly, in
that moment Hindi came forward at the hands of its writers and other users to
serve the job.At each step in the journey towardsthe goal, there would be hurdles
– linguistic, cultural and political. The last one was particularly problematic,
since the people involved had to take cognizance of the religious-linguistic divide.
Consider that communities and languages were to work in such a way that the
goal of achieving emancipation from the colonizing power was not jeopardized.
Yes, the fight with the colonial enemy was a battle and it was being fought on
two levels, political and linguistic. Let us in this light read the poem’s first line
again that “We were fighting a battle to change society.” As a reader of the poem,
I can make this sense of the first line. What would you say? Would you not agree
that we had begun moving along the path of progress that included changing
society?
Activity 4
Is the poet merely talking about Hindi as a language or saying something
broader than this?
2.10 A COMMENT ON ‘HINDI,’ WITH QUESTIONS RAISED ABOUT IT
As we approach the next point, we realize that the poem has in fact presented a
whole new argument. First, read the statement which apparently contradicts the
previous one saying, “But the question of Hindi is no longer simply a question/
of Hindi – we have lost out.” See how the poetic point is constructed. It is done
through a gap that is left at the end of the words “no longer simply a question of
Hindi.” Normally, the sentence might have continued using “but also.” Why has
the poet not done it? I call it a deliberate administering of shock. The gap thus
created makes us wonder. This is a trick that poets try on the readers sometimes.
As we think and gradually move out of the shock, we confront a heavy sentence
– “we have lost out.” The questions, then, to mull over are two – what have we
lost out, and how?
In the context, the explanation given above would be of help. Hindi as a language
was the child of India’s National Movement, meaning thereby that the two were
intertwined. With respect to evolution as well as articulation, the political change
aimed through the anti-British struggle would have effected establishment of
Hindi as the national language. To reiterate, a national integrated unity across
the country would be based on a fully developed and enriched national language.
That somehow did not happen. In such a case, it was impossible for the language
to realize the dream of seeing the country fully and meaningfully unified. To me,
that is what “we have lost out” means. Would you agree?
In the explanation given above, the issue of language stands somewhat elucidated,
which is incidentally not the case with what or how “we have lost out.” Let us
move in that direction here. The poet Raghuvir Sahay had the political orientation
of a socialist; he thought along lines of master and slaves, haves and have-nots.
The words denoting this occur from the beginning to end in the poem. See, for
instance, the words “agents,” “oppressors,” “masters,” “slaves,” and “slavery.”
Through them, the poet has referred to class relations in Indian society. For recreating the process of nation-building following the exit of the British from
Indian soil, the poet has drawn a complex picture of the powerful natives as they
contained and controlled the social energy of India’s masses. Indeed, the poem
is about this scenario in which the act of containment is centrally placed. For the
poet, what we witnessed in the nineteen fifties was the misuse of dynamism of
the masses by the native oppressors. Particularly, the middle classes of the country
were turned into agents of the oppressors with respect to establishing Hindi as
the national language. This caused the simultaneous use of two languages in the
country – Hindi and English. Let us remember that initially English was in use
for promoting the interests of the colonial oppressors. On the other hand, Hindi
served the cause of emancipation of the colonised. This was cleverly mixed in
post-Independence India to cause a rupture in the process and derail it finally.
Two different sets of arguments were offered to problematize the cultural-social
thought. The result was, as the poet states, “The demand for Hindi/ is now a
demand/ for better treatment – /not rights – /put by the agents/to their slave masters./
They use Hindi in place of English,/while the fact is/ that their masters/use English
in place of Hindi – /the two of them have struck a deal.” As said above, agents in
the case are the middle classes, whereas the privileged are oppressors and the
common masses are slaves. The poet does not mince words when he says that
democracy is to obey the writ of the masters who are indeed the common people.
However, the scene is manipulated to achieve the reverse – through a trick, the
masters are turned into slaves and the slaves have occupied the throne to become
oppressors. Truly, “we have lost out.”
2.11 LET US SUM UP
In this unit, we learnt about the poets Amir Khusrau and Raghuvir Sahay as
individual writers who composed poems of great literary merit. This was followed
by a view of Khusrau’s ‘Ghazal’ and Sahay’s ‘Hindi.’ The first poem gave us a
glimpse of how medieval India’s sufi tradition shaped the poetic form. This helped
us understand the nature of love and longing in the early medieval period and the
soft feel of the experience that Khusrau presented. Raghuvir Sahay dealt with
the question of language and its political as well as cultural role in the postIndependence period. The discussion revolved around the use of languages and
dialects in the hands of Amir Khusrau, as well as Raghuvir Sahay’s interpretation
of the complex issue of Hindi as a national language in the nineteen fifties and
sixties. Whereas Khusrau had laid the foundation of Hindi as a language that
was used at the grassroots, Sahay linked Hindi with the origin and development
of India’s national consciousness in the twentieth century. Together, the two poems
threw light on a few important facets of India’s rich and somewhat problematic
cultural history.
2.12 AIDS TO ACTIVITIES
Activity 1: The lover frequently referred to as a worshipper of god.
Activity 2: In order to make it more beautiful and representative of all the voices
that are to be found in the poem.
Activity 3: The impassioned ‘for’ and ‘against’debate gives rise to this metaphor.
Activity 4: He is referring to the unity of the nation.
2.13 GLOSSARY
Fanah : merging of the self with the emotion.
Ishq : love, intense and of many hues. Mainly, it refersto the
real human as well as the spiritual.
Khari Boli : literally, the straight dialect signifying simplicity and
ease of use. In explanation, it assumed importance as
the basis of the two languages, Urdu and Hindi.
Repositories : in the contest, the persons who contain or symbolize
specific qualities.
Sufism : the tradition of mysticism that primarily underlined
the link between humans and an invisible yet highly
appealing presence.
2.14 UNIT END QUESTIONS
1) What characteristics did the ghazal form assume in the hands of Amir
Khusrau? Elaborate.
2) Explain the role and function of the ghazal form in the early medieval period.
3) Elucidate the political points made by Raghuvir Sahay in his poem ‘Hindi.’
4) Bring out the implications of “But the question of Hindi is no longersimply
a question/ of Hindi – we have lost out” in Raghuvir Sahay’s poem ‘Hindi.’
2.15 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING
1) Naregal, Veena. Language Politics, Elites and Public Sphere. New Delhi:
Permanent Black, 2001.
2) Paniker, Ayyappa K. ed., Medieval Indian Literature, vol. 4, Sahitya
Akademi, New Delhi, 2000.
3) Panjabi, Kavita. Poetics and Politics of Sufism and Bhakti in South Asia.
Hyderabad: Orient Blackswan, 2011.
4) Ranganathan,Balaji. Orientalism in India. New Delhi:CreativeBooks, 2009.
5) Satchidanandan, K ed., Signatures: One Hundred Indian Poets, National
Book Trust, New Delhi, 2000.
UNIT 3 M.K. NAIK AND THE ISSUE OF LANGUAGE
‘Indian Pride and Indian Prejudice: Reflections On the Relationship Between
Regional Indian Literatures and Indian Writing in English’ by M.K. Naik
Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 M. K. Naik and the Issue of Language
3.2.1 Relevance of Indian English Literature
3.2.2 Social Life and Language
3.3 Raja Rao and Indian English
3.4 Indian English: An Alternative Form of Expression?
3.5 Let Us Sum Up
3.6 Aids to Activities
3.7 Glossary
3.8 Unit End Questions
3.9 References and Suggested Reading
3.0 OBJECTIVES
In this unit, we shall discuss the politics of language with special reference to
Indian writing in English. We have in our midst a phenomenon of writing in a
language not our very own, so to say. The construction “not our very own” might
cause raising of eyebrows, and quite understandably so. Different aspects of this
issue will be taken up here and we shall be dealing with what of late has come to
be called a prejudice. To discuss the clash between a language of foreign origin
and other languages that have been ours since ages, we need to consider a text on
which to hang our argument for or against the issue. The text to be used for this
purpose in this unit is an excerpt from ‘Indian Pride and Indian Prejudice:
Reflections on Relationship between Regional Indian Literatures and Indian
Writing in English’ by M.K. Naik. By the end of this unit, you will be in a
position to see both sides of the question and have an informed view regarding
the politics of language.
Words in bold are explained in the Glossary
3.1 INTRODUCTION
It is observed that literature draws its substance from real life expressed in a
language of common use. This goes in favour of Indian languages capable of
carrying the values of a culture that has developed in India over centuries. Yet,
one can see in it the hidden politics of certain sections of people who wish to
project one or the other language of India at the cost of specific languages and
dialects as well as a language of foreign origin that has come to acquire legitimacy
and privilege in the country. The last is a reference to English in whose support
stands a whole lobby structured into the socio-cultural and political system
prevailing in this country. Let us also keep in mind the fact that since the country
gained independence from British rule in 1947, we have been contending with
the issue of a national language and a link language acceptable to all. Language
as a contentious question in our country affects the spectrum of the vast middle
class spread over our society. The excerpt of the M.K. Naik text servesthe purpose
of presenting an argument that might become an entry point into the debate about
the use and adoption of one or other language. Significantly, literary writing has
assumed a peculiar dimension here as it adds to the complexity of the linguistic
phenomenon before us. The aspects brought in by literary writing relate to ideas,
life norms and values, imaginative construction of social vision and cultural
hegemony. Add to this the working of power centres linked with economic and
political clout, as well as an entire administrative machinery meant to serve the
interests of an integrated India. All these come into play when language is
discussed in detail.
Let us also talk about specific facts linked with the issue of linguistic debates
going on in our country. We are a society with many languages, cultures,
ethnicities, and belief systems. Thus, we need an ideological-cultural glue to
bind diversities. There is an apprehension that the diversity of the country may
not remain secure if there are one or two powerful languages amidst the many
we have. The former might impose a pattern of thought not suitable for specific
cultures and social formations. This is a matter of apprehension. However,
apprehension plays a big part in constructing a consensus, by creating hurdles
that will counter efforts of harmonizing and smoothening life’s processes. Come
to think of it, this is the stuff of literary writing that engages with details and the
nitty-gritty of social life. Narratives and imaginings in literature provide richness
of thought, a sense of togetherness and an atmosphere of mutual learning. Consider
that whenever the language issue came up for adopting one language that would
bind different sections of people, all these points came into play and made the
social atmosphere ideologically charged and politically agitated. As mentioned,
the role of English as a language capable of binding the various communities
together was broadly highlighted. To gain clarity about this problem, let us first
look at the argument of Naik’s essay in some detail.
Activity 1
Look around you and observe the different waysin which English language
is being used. Who uses it and for what purpose?
3.2 M. K. NAIK AND THE ISSUE OF LANGUAGE
First, a few words about M.K. Naik, former Professor of English in a university
of repute in India, who has greatly contributed to the understanding of Indian
English writing through books and independent essays. He has approached the
issue of writing with an open mind, giving credit where it is due and commenting
critically where mistakes had occurred in assessing the worth of certain literary
trends and works. We can safely assume that Naik’s arguments enrich our
comprehension and prove useful in making sense of contemporary depictions.
His clear-headed and robust approach would be of value for the students of
literature. At the same time though, we might spot areas in his present essay
where mistaken emphases and lapses have occurred. For us, these generate
discussion and enable us to disagree and observantly come upon difficulties and
hurdles.
We are struck in the essay initially by the provocative and a slightly rhetorical
use of the metaphor of the joint family. Naik likens India’s languages to “a vast
joint family (so typical of the Indian ethos), blessed with many brothers, some of
whom are veritable Methuselahs.” His reference is to the long-standing figures
of India’s literatures, in the historical sense that they have a long history of
evolution and change, that have stood the test of time and remained major
mediums of imaginative communication and expression. His list comprises Tamil,
Kannada, Telugu, Marathi, and Bengali literatures that are 2000 years, 1500 years,
1000 years, 950 years, and 900 years old respectively. This is immediately
followed by the mention of English writing that takes the form of “the youngest
of these brothers …[being] Indian English literature—a baby not even two
hundred years old; but to be the youngest of the lot … not [being] its only
misfortune.” For Naik, the “baby” has been “born with a hideous birth-mark”
that “has given rise to the strange notion that the young fellow is a bastard, the
untouchable product of an unholy alliance between a White father and an Indian
mother.” At the end of the description of the metaphor comes the serious point
that Naik has made: “Several strategies—linguistic, literary, cultural and even
political—have been employed in the attempt to prove the utter redundancy of
Indian English literature.”
Before we paraphrase the issue for our benefit, let there be mention of a lapse. In
the number of literatures occurring in Naik’s excerpt, Hindi literature does not
figure – a literature that has as long a history as Telugu, Marathi and Bengali.
Has Hindi literature been left out of the purview since the number of literatures
mentioned was already five, a sufficiently big one to serve as an example? That
does not seem to be the case. Indeed, the literature written in Hindi enjoys
additional weight for initially being the official language on which there existed
consensus in the early fifties. Hindi as a language has from the beginning of
Independent India been in the eye of the storm with many states rising in revolt
against it. Hindi was perceived as an imposition by north India on all Indian
languages. A yet greater charge against Hindi was that it replaced English—
replacement being a kind of dethronement of English from its position of power.
The argument that ran in favour of English was that it connected Indian society
like no other language would, making the country a strongly integrated unit.
Presumably, English played the role of keeping India’s middle classes effectively
informed about policies legislated by the Parliament and procedures of law and
administration. Could Hindi not play such a role as a national language and a
link language? Naik’s essay might be understood and interpreted against this
backdrop. We have Naik sweeping aside this language from consideration as if
that would enable us to understand the question objectively. We note that Naik
has in this essay assiduously avoided discussion of English as a language and
solely spoken of English literature. But can those literatures he refers to in the
beginning of the essay be separated from their languages? Be that as it may, we
have on hand the subject of viability of English language involving the merits
and demerits of the case.
3.2.1 Relevance of Indian English Literature
Naik’s first point in the discussion is that a whole section of scholars and writers
have undertaken various “strategies” and attempted “to prove the utter redundancy
of Indian English literature.” He seems to be arguing that it reflects the prejudice
against a whole body of literary writing. Indeed, Naik has rightly pointed out
that Indian English literature is anything but redundant; it has much to offer in
terms of an open attitude to the intricacies of relationships obtaining in India.
Also, this writing engages with problems of inequality, social pressures on
communities and sections, poverty, persecutions and restrictions, to name a few.
Together with literatures available in other Indian languages, English has served
the purpose of an important means of communication between regions, cultural
domains, and ethnicities. Let us look at how Naik shares with us characteristics
of depiction in English by Indian writers. The essay begins with a pot shot that
Naik takes at the well-known Bengali writer Buddhadeva Bose. It goes asfollows:
In his note on ‘Indian Poetry in English’ in The Concise Encyclopaedia
of English and American Poets and Poetry, the much-respected Bengali
scholar, Buddhadeva Bose condemned Indian English poetry as ‘a blind
alley lined with curio shops, leading nowhere’. (This venerable
intellectual must be turning—rather badly—in his grave today, to find
the ‘blind alley’ turning into a veritable fashion street, and the ‘curio
shops’ giving way to literary Marks and Spencers and Harrods and
Gimbells.)
In the same note, Bose argues that it is difficult to see how they (Indian
English poets) can develop as poets in a language which they have
learnt from books and seldom hear spoken in the streets or even in their
own homes, and whose two great sources lie beyond the seven seas.
But the fact is that it no longer matters whether the Indian English poet
learnt his English, not from British or Scottish or Irish or American or
Australian or New Zealander or South African teachers but from fellow
Indians. This is because English today can no longer be regarded as a
non-native language in India. It the question of official and legal status
isto be raised, let us not forget that English is additional official language
of the Indian Union; and it is also the first official language of at least
one Indian state—Nagaland, while in three Indian states, viz. Manipur,
Meghalaya and Mizoram, it is an associate official language.
Let us have a critical look at this passage. In the first para, the transformation
from “curio shops” to a “fashion street” is brought forward as an example of
English’s assertive presence. Yet, the irony cannot be missed. Naik notes with
satisfaction the emergence of English as an impressive entity that attracts notice.
The entity is tied up with the glamour of popular store-chains of the corporate
world. The question is whether that does not at least partially reflect upon the
view of English as an elitist agency. That apart, the point is well taken that the
prediction of Buddhadev Bose has proved false. In the second paragraph, Naik’s
tone changes and he lets the “fact” speak for itself. Bose’s idea that a language is
learnt from the street may be theoretically true. Yet, the crucial issue is of what
happened, not what generally happens. Even as difficulties stand in the way,
English has emerged victorious and shown one and all that it has arrived on the
scene to play a decisive role and give voice to the travails of life in the Indian
context. Naik is right in saying that the Indian English writer learns his language
not from any foreign source but “from fellow Indians.” This is a convincing
point since the people around a writer are the best sources for a grasp of the
social scene where conflicts of different kinds take shape.
Activity 2
Observe the different fields ofsocial life in which English is used and write
a brief note about it.
3.2.2 Social Life and Language
Yet, Naik is stretching the point too far when he marshals examples to buttress
his argument. The reference to Indian English poet Dom Moraes does not serve
the purpose of establishing the fact of Indian English writing which is recognized
in any case because of the existing literature in that language. Individual cases in
such situations are only of partial value. However, the next reference to the
prejudice has something to offer for pondering over. This concerns the issue of
language yet again but in a different context. To quote Naik:
R.C. Dutt (who produced abridged English versions of the Hindu
classics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata in standard Victorian
verse) declared, ‘All attempts to court the muses in a foreign tongue
must be fruitless. … True genius mistakes its vocation when it struggles
in a foreign tongue’ (1895). Writing in the same year as Bose, but
hundreds of miles away from him, in the south, M. Chalapathi Rau, a
brilliant journalist, who wrote perceptive reviews (in trenchant English),
is equally strident in condemning Indian writing in English, which,
according to him, is ‘at best composition, and the best of it is translation.
Nothing more is possible except for someone who can live the language,
think the language, and write, not compose in the language’. Writing in
the same vein, two bright young Indian students studying in England
dashed off a letter to The Time’s Literary Supplement with more selfconfidence than is good for smart young things, presumably in their
thirties. Their logic was impeccable: ‘English with most Indians is still
a language of official public affairs, of intellectual and academic debate.
They do not use English for their most intimate purposes, to think and
feel, bless and curse, quarrel and kiss’. Are we to believe that educated
Indians never say, spontaneously on various occasions, when the words
and phrases are appropriate, ‘My God’, ‘O shit’, ‘You fool’, ‘You see’,
and a hundred other things of the kind? And pray, how exactly does one
‘kiss’ in English? One had always thought that the said operation had a
universal language and in fact, it needed no language at all, four lips
being actively engaged for purposes far finer than of articulating mere
words. (But perhaps the bright young things knew the secret then, which,
alas, they must have lost now forty years later, for, who can remain
young for ever?). Though, of course, one can always remain ‘of his
opinion, still’, all the time.
Naik’s effort at use of anecdote or light words (“two bright young Indian students”
and “smart young things”) does not add value to the discussion. It dismisses the
point as not worth considering seriously. This also sheds negative light on the
issue that R.C. Dutt and M. Chalapathi Rau raised. The former argued that
struggling in a foreign language has serious disadvantages. What Dutt meant
was that a language that is not one’s own in the sense that it is not integral to
social life and culture of one’s time is deficient in scope for struggling to express.
There, the referents are people addressing audiences far away from one’s own
32 atmosphere of sound patterns and word use. The distinction made by Chalapathi
Rau in writing and composing points goes towards the same idea. Writing is
spontaneous, whereas composition is self-conscious. The person who composes
always looks over his/her shoulder to get approval from the invisible onlooker
whether s/he has observed rules of grammar and expression appropriately. The
charge of smartness put at the door of young bright minds can equally well be
turned back to Naik who takes attention away from serious aspects of learning,
adopting, grasping and feeling in a language, not just when the person attended
school but when s/he was born and was oblivious of what went on. The flood of
examples unleashed by Naik on the reader only suggests that there are no serious
answers but replies that exhibit effort at proving a point. Having said this, we
may realise that there is indeed a question of English writing in India connected
with the dialectic of many pressures brought to bear upon the educated middle
class sections, and the same writing playing an important role in comprehending
the surrounding socio-cultural reality profitably. This may be recognized as a
given. Our job is to give weight to all existing parameters, recognise their role
and significance as well as the tasks they might perform in the world we inhabit.
One may also not overlook the interwoven modes of expression in the sixteenth
and seventeenth centuries in the land of the English language. All that can be got
together for supporting a language would have worked in the case of English in
Elizabethan England. That may only be overlooked at the risk of damaging the
vibrancy and breadth of English in those centuries. It may also be helpful to
make sense of the practice of John Milton in the seventeenth century. The great
poet used Latin words in ample measure and placed them in the middle of
sentences and clauses, denoting heightened creativity. His ‘Latinisms’ were noted
for effect as well as conscious distancing so they conveyed a spectacle away
from the planet Earth. Yet, Milton’s Paradise Lost remained deeply rooted in the
soil of England’s cultural and aesthetic life. The answer lies not in mocking but
giving a response that assists in clearing ways of aesthetic expression.
Activity 3
Read a poem/shortstory in Hindi or any regional language and one in English.
Compare and contrast the world view expressed in both.
3.3 RAJA RAO AND INDIAN ENGLISH
Near the middle of Naik’s essay, there are two points that are particularly worth
going over. The first is of Raja Rao who wrote a short introductory note to his
novel Kanthapura way back in 1938. It drew attention as soon as the novel was
published in the heyday of India’s National Movement. To many at the time, it
appeared odd that someone was attempting a fictional piece about the national
political phenomenon in a language that only a fraction of the Indian population
understood. But it did not worry Rao. It certainly was a question though and
must have been raised. This perhaps required the writer to offer a rationale of his
decision to express his writerly intent in English. Rao’s stance was emphatic and
had a ring of conviction in it. It said, “We cannot write like the English. We
should not: we can write only as Indians. We have grown to look at the large
world as part of us. Our method of expression, therefore, has to be a dialect
which will someday prove to be as distinctive and colourful as the Irish or the
American. Time alone will justify it.” How to write like Indians? Rao’s stress is
on the Indian experience and Indian vision. In the nineteen thirties, Indians were
to look around for trendsthat were of an economic and political nature and which
would prove decisive for the Indians. We say economic because enterprise was
in the hands of the British. They were the masters. On the other hand, Indian
leaders such as Gandhi were raising their critical voice against a foreign power
in control of the resources. This was political. The phenomenon required naming
of the stakeholders in the existing economic-political enterprise. This was the
Indian experience. Could it be expressed in English? Raja Rao thought so. Since
naming of the stakeholders was crucial, Rao ranged a whole battalion of poor
and deprived Indians in the resistance mode. The British, too, got a clear mention.
They had their managers and administrators to run the show and present a point
of view that would carry a message of governance to the Indian populace. For
Raja Rao, rightly, such a scenario could be presented in a linguistic medium that
was different from the one available to writers of English in Britain and elsewhere.
The linguistic medium was the dialect that Rao used. He mentions adjectives
like “distinctive” and “colourful.” He proved to the hilt that the voice of Indians
could be captured authentically in English on the strength of the issues he raised
and the persons he chose to depict and to whom he assigned a point of view. At
the end of his writerly campaign in Kanthapura, Raja Rao proved beyond doubt
that with the right substance and equipment, he could achieve the desired result.
The second point is that English is to be considered the second language in India
and the need to redefine the issue in view of the role a language might play in a
country’s cultural life. In this regard, Nair refers to a thinker-critic, Paul
Christopherssen who, says Naik, “distinguishes between a foreign language,
‘which is not one’s own’, though one may have a good knowledge of it, and a
second language, which is one’s own, though not… usually the first to be learnt.
‘A foreign language is used for absorbing the culture of another nation; a second
language is used as an alternative way of expressing the culture of one’s own.’”
It is not in an agency’s power to bring a language from another country and
establish it in one’s own. The use of a language involves parameters that work
on their own dynamic. A foreign language has value of a different kind. So far as
English is concerned, it has had a long association with India. There is a whole
group here that employs English not merely for studying the literature available
in it, but for purposes of communication in many areas, most notably in
administration, law, journalism, educational institutions, to name a few. The
efficacy of English is established as an authentic means of communication. The
presence of English in the Indian ethos is unmistakable. All these facors make it
a second language. Christopherssen defines it “as an alternative way of expressing
the culture of one’s own.” What does it mean? It implies perhaps that a culture
has many options to choose from for its way of expression. There is also the
suggestion in the statement that the way of expression is not confined to words
alone but is indeed a mode with its own laws of articulating and shaping culture.
That opens a new window of perceiving the question, introducing the idea of
culture becoming less or more rich depending on which language is employed to
express it. Even outside this consideration, the point is well made that English is
a “second language” in India and may effectively be used. Once accepted, it
assumes a valid and legitimate role, the one in fact that it plays today.
Activity 4
Read a newspaper article in English. How do you think English helps you
relate to the world?
3.4 INDIAN ENGLISH: AN ALTERNATIVE FORM OF EXPRESSION?
A substantially large part of Naik’s essay is devoted to proving that Indian writing
in English has an acceptable rationale and justification. In the essay, there are
references to many writers and thinkers arguing for and against the claim of
acceptability by English. Towards the end, however, Naik also takes up the cause
of Indian languages in which, so far as he is concerned, regional literatures exist.
The term “regional literatures” is unfortunate in that it restricts the scope of
writing in India’s languages along geographical lines. Yet, Naik sheds the tone
of bias temporarily and makes some critical comments about Indian writers in
English. To quote:
Only two percent of India’s vast population know English today, and
though the number will certainly rise in future, it is difficult to envisage
a situation, when Indians will give up writing in their mother tongue
altogether. Poetry in the Indian languages is hundreds of years old, and
a tradition as old as that is not going to become extinct so easily. The
regional cultures of India are vigorous and vibrant. They have survived
over millennia, reacting to foreign influences, by changing, and adapting
to new situations. They show absolutely no signs of dying out, on the
contrary, they continue to flourish. Then how can their languages and
the poetry in them decline? All the signs point in the opposite direction.
Thus, during the last 30 years, Dalit verse has added a new dimension
to Marathi poetry, by making the lowest of the low vocal in it. One sees
and foresees not decline but distinct development in the regional
literatures at present and in the future.
There are significant aspects to the “two percent” bit in this quote. One is that
population wise, the appeal of English is limited. This is offset by the influence
this small number wields in India, across regions, states and languages. Another
is that even if English-knowing Indians increase, they will not “give up writing
in their mother tongue altogether”. Mark the expectation though. Then there is
the grouse lying beneath the grudging acceptance that the poetry in the Indian
languages “is not going to become extinct so easily.” The interesting part is that
the lighter tone and indicated desire mix-up reveals something other than what it
says. The most important facet of the quote is the reference to “regional
literatures.” That the writing in Indian languages is not necessarily limited to the
regions but spills over to vast areas in the country and strikes new roots in a
variety of backgrounds is proved by Urdu-Hindi writing. The area of Urdu-Hindi
or Hindustani, (the description had the stamp of Gandhiji and Premchand in the
nineteen twenties), starts from Punjab and goes up to Bihar in the east, the
boundaries of Madhya Pradesh where southern India begins, and stretches beyond
Rajasthan to parts of Gujarat. Even Bengali writing is not contained within the
boundaries of Bengal beyond which it merges with Odia on one side and Assam
on the other. The cultural combine of Gujarat and Marathi will raise difficulties
regarding the term “regional literature”. Indeed, difficulties do not end here. The
question is not of culture, but of life, ideas, perspectives and ideological as well
as political paradigms that constitute the staple of literary expression. Yes, this is
the point we should discuss to gain clarity on the link between culture and literature
on one side and society and literature on the other.
There is no doubt that as an activity of importance, culture is the space to which
literature belongs: there it gets its nourishment and is nurtured. The more rich
and refined the culture, the more subtle and nuanced would be the literary
expression. Also, refinement in culture is the outcome of a long tradition of
struggle through which writers and artists pass in their journey to expression.
Where does language stand in this process? For an answer to this, let us remind
ourselves that language is not merely a medium but is an act of articulating
experience on the strength of fighting with words. On their side, words carry a
whole world of collective understanding and wisdom that comes into play when
the writer engages with the literary making-unmaking of his travails. As the
writer contends with pressure from words, s/he energises language, already laden
with feelingsfrom the past. It isto be recognized that at the centre of it issituated
a dynamic language chosen consciously by the writer. This is the basis of Naik’s
stand on the language debate related to Indian writing in English. One could
term it culture-centred, where values, outlooks and approaches interact and make
ground for the literary work. This explains why Naik relies so heavily on specific
works and comments of critics, thinkers and writers for discussion. In the said
works and comments are then spotted ideas useful for ascertaining whether
English or Indian languages with a long history would suit Indian writing.
To my mind, there is something amiss in this culture-centred argument. There is
little concern here with the energy that flows from life into a language which in
turn infuses sensations and vibrancies in the existing life. Such a dialectic of life
and language was in play in the nineteenth century India, particularly in the
years post 1857. The forties, fifties and the later decades of the nineteenth century
were witness to a rising social temperature. Indian writing in English originated
in this period, gave a few inspiring works but the intensity soon dwindled. In
comparison, the appeal of Indian literatures increased in intensity and volume. A
phase was visible at the turn of the century when a new crop of writers in Indian
languages turned towards a new task. The question is whether the task was
essentially cultural or deeply socio-political. In this context, two examples come
to mind, of Bankim Chandra Chatterjee and Rabindranath Tagore. The former
began his writing career with a novel in English but soon decided to shift to
Bengali. The latter was bilingual in a stronger sense and prospered better in
Bengali than in English. Such a shift was seen also in Premchand, with the
difference that he shifted from Urdu to Hindi. In his case, the writing continued
in the two languages simultaneously, but he learnt Hindi specifically because
there he saw a larger readership. The newly emerged need for ideas, social
comment and politics compelled Premchand to edit and publish two monthly
magazines, both in Hindi. Marked changes occurred in his language, too, that
moved closer to the expression heard on the street. Mulk Raj Anand was directly
in touch with activists among writers in the National Movement. Even Raja Rao
took a keen interest in the political happenings as a participant rather than as an
observer (Alterno 5-6). Was there a correspondence in surge of this kind between
Indian writing in English and all Indian languages? The question is worth
pondering over. Suffice it to say that the point I am raising has not much to do
with culture, but with a literary-linguistic requirement of the political hue.
Activity 5
Speak to at least five different people from different age groups. Ask them
about their views of English as a language and how they use it. Compare
their responses
3.5 LET US SUM UP
In this unit, we have focused upon Indian writing in English and its importance
in our cultural life. This has been in view of the long drawn out language debate
that argues for or against the value of Indian writing in English. To gain insight
into the issue, M.K. Naik’s essay on the debate has been discussed at length. It
has come up as an acknowledged fact that English writing in India has come of
age and touched great heights. Yet, the debate has refused to die down.
Significantly, the struggle for gaining supremacy has contributed to a healthy
rivalry and produced a new vigour and vitality in today’s writing. The debate has
lighted up new areas of perception, sensitivity and social relevance.
3.6 AIDS TO ACTIVITIES
Activity 1: Depending on their background, people use English in a variety of
contexts.
Activity 2 : English is mixed liberally with Hindi/other languages in everyday
conversations, advertisements etc.
Activity 3: The points you could focus on could be the contexts of the stories/
poems that you have read; whether they talk about universal issues
etc.
Activity 4: See if English newspapers make the reader familiar with terms and
issues that are prevalent in international circles.
Activity 5: The use of English would vary according to age, rural/urban and
educational background.
3.7 GLOSSARY
Consensus : general agreement.
Dialectic of life and : the reference is to the process. The two inspire
language and strengthen each other. That is how they
remain alive.
Narratives and : novels and poems. The idea is to present them
Imaginings from the point of view of their form.
3.8 UNIT END QUESTIONS
1) What are M.K. Naik’s views on Indian English?
2) Critically comment on Raja Rao’s remarks in the Preface to Kanthapura.
3) What according to you is the social role of English language in India?
4) Examine the use of English in advertisement and pamphlets. Pick up any
two slogans and comment on their use.
3.9 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING
1) Alterno, Letizia. Raja Rao:An Introduction. New Delhi:Cambridge U Press,
2011.
2) Kumar, Sukrita Paul. Ed., Cultural Diversity, Linguistic Plurality and
Literary Traditions. New Delhi: OUP, 2015.
3) Rai, Alok. Hindi Nationalism. New Delhi: Orient Longman, 2001.
4) Rao, Raja. Int., Kanthapura (1938). New Delhi: OUP, rpt. 1978.
5) Sridhar, M. and Sunita Mishra. Eds., Language Policy in India: Documents,
Contexts and Debates. London: Routledge, 2017.
UNIT 4 ‘MOTHER TONGUE’ BY PADMA SACHDEV; ‘PASSAGE TO AMERICA’ BY K. AYYAPPA PANIKER
Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Padma Sachdev, the Dogri Poet
4.3 Text of ‘Mother Tongue’
4.3.1 Reading ‘Mother Tongue’
4.3.2 Thematic Significance
4.3.3 ‘Mother Tongue’ as an Aesthetic Expression
4.3.4 Language as Mother Tongue and Language of Translation
4.4 K. Ayyappa Paniker, the Malayalam Poet
4.5 Text of ‘Passage to America’
4.5.1 Reading ‘Passage to America’.
4.5.2 Thematic Significance
4.5.3 Passage to America as an Aesthetic Expression
4.5.4 English as Language of Translation in ‘Passage to America’
4.6 Let Us Sum Up
4.7 Aids to Activities
4.8 Glossary
4.9 Questions
4.10 References and Suggested Reading
4.0 OBJECTIVES
Our objective in this unit is to consider in detail two poems, the first written in
Dogri and the second in Malayalam. We shall learn here to relate poetic writing
with the socio-political world surrounding us and see how they become
intermeshed in the hands of literary writers. You will be able to look critically at
the rich domain of language where poetic writing is shaped to raise pertinent
issues of culture and social truth.
Words in bold are explained in the Glossary
4.1 INTRODUCTION
We read and discussin the two poems, ‘Mother Tongue’ and ‘Passage to America’
the issues and concerns of the present-day world. The first is a Dogri poem written
by Padma Sachdev, and the second is a Malayalam poem by K. Ayyappa Paniker.
The central subject of the first poem is the role of the writer. The poem’s title
gives a clear indication of what the poet thinks about herself and how she might
interpret the world she belongs to. The second poem has a larger canvas and
takes into its fold, the problems of the modern person caught up in a web of
multiple identities. As we read it, we come to grips with the working of the mind
and imagination of the human subject called the poet. In this process, the poets
find their moorings. The writer also ventures into the arena of borders which
divide the world and create issues of finding a home. This has something to do
with what M. K. Naik has called the “Indian sensibility” (5). Clearly, the two
poems offer ample scope for exploration of modern living. In the two poems, we
are struck, too, by the nature of language that speaks of experience and thought
simultaneously. In tone and tenor, the two poems are deceptively simple but
reveal a spectacle of clashing interests when seen closely. The pictures and images
built into these poems require elucidation and analysis. Even as they are “freed
from the restraints of meter, rhyme and form,” they are able to avoid the “versified
chaos” that Naik feared (212). And it is not only because they are here in English
translation. In this unit, we shall locate clues from where we could launch an
exploratory excursion into the surroundings the poems capture.
Activity 1
Read a couple of poems – some written in free verse and others which
conform to conventional notions of rhyme and meter and see what difference
this makes.
4.2 PADMA SACHDEV, THE DOGRI POET
Padma Sachdev belongs to the Jammu region of the state of Jammu and Kashmir.
She was born in 1940 and starting writing from an early age. She learnt her
lessons in literary expression at a time when India was evolving as a society with
a democratic and egalitarian ethos. This was something new to young Padma
who was surrounded by a tradition-bound generation of men and women. For
her, writing might have been an exercise in an assertion of selfhood. She was
bilingual, writing in Dogri and Hindi where she won recognition for her libertarian
views. It came naturally to her to speak for the feminist cause. Her writing has
been characterized majorly by her autobiographical impulse. She relates as a
woman with the world of home, neighbourhood, market and commerce. These
are the problematic areas she contends with, and takes them as an intellectual
challenge. Her presence has been noted as the first woman Dogri poet and fiction
writer. A winner of many awards, she has published books such as Tavi Te Chanhan
(River Tavi and Chenab) and Nheriyan Galiyan (Dark Lanes).
4.3 TEXT OF ‘MOTHER TONGUE’
I approached a stem
Swinging on a reed
And asked him
To give me a quill.
Irritated, he said
I gave you one only the other day
A new one, what have you done with it?
Are you some sort of an accountant
With some Shah
Writing account books
Where you need a new pen
Every other day, he asked.
No, I don’t work for a Shah
I said, but for a Shahni, very kind, very well off
And I am not the only one
Working for her
She has many servants
Ever ready to do her bidding
That Shahni is my mother tongue
Dogri
Give me, a quill, quickly
She must be looking for me
The reed cut off its hand
Gave it to me and said
Take it
I too am her servant.
(This poem has been translated from the original Dogri by Shivanath.)
4.3.1 Reading ‘Mother Tongue’
The first sentence is split into four lines. You may wonder why. The reason is
that poetry in our times has shed the shackles of conventional versification. It
does not follow established rules of poetic composition such as rhyme, meter,
rhythm, etc. Meter would imply the length of the line in terms of sound. The
splitting of the sentence serves the purpose of giving pauses. At the end of the
line, you pause and think as well as wait for the sentence to move further where
at some time it would stop. Such a verse is called free verse, the French word for
it being vers libre. It goes with the mental state of the poet who relies on the flow
of meaning inherent in each word used. Mark, then, that the full sentence— “I
approached a stem swinging on a reed and asked him to give me a quill”—is in
the manner of a story, a happening. The only thing that creates hurdles here is the
word “stem” that is “swinging on a reed.” Generally, humans do not speak with
trees, or stems. Yet, here the poet is doing precisely that. Also, the act inspires us
to imagine that we might talk to a stem that can be treated as a friend. The request
is for a quill, used as a pen that may enable the poet to write. “Stem” is a man,
“him”. Indeed, soon the stem assumes the role of a person and feels “irritated,” a
typical human trait. He is angry since the one he gave the poet the previous day
could still be used. Why cut a quill from the reed unnecessarily? To help the poet
grasp his intent, the stem explains that only accountants of a “Shah” would write
so much as to need a new quill every day. For readers, this response leads straight
to the world of reality constituting accountants, shahs, money, trade and
commerce.
Activity 2
What effect does the treatment of the stem as a person (personification)
have in the overall impact of the poem?
For us, the reference to a Shah raises a whole lot of questions, opens a new
window to the world we live in. Firstly, the world we know stands in direct contrast to nature with which this poem began—a stem, a quill, a reed. The poet
herself was closer to nature, she appeared to be innocent, honest and curious—a
dreamer. She was not aware of the existence of a society driven by parameters of
buying and selling, of keeping accounts. When quizzed by the stem, the poet too
talks with a sense of distinction into which she has been pushed now. The poet’s
answer to the stem is fully informed, not expected of a dreamer. This is the
complexity we face while reading this poem. Suddenly it appears that the poet
has woken up to an atmosphere of difference and discrimination. Saying she
does not work for a Shah, since that would be restrictive if not downright
demeaning, the poet introduces the alternative figure of Shahni, a female and
one who inspires and enables creativity. Who or what is Shahni? This is the
question the poet raises and addresses. Her answer is long, comprehensive and
ever widening. Since it is the crux of the poem, let me quote in full for emphasis—
“Shahni [is] very kind,/ Very well off/ And I am not the only one/ Working for
her/ She has many servants/ Ever ready to do her bidding/ That Shahni is my
mother tongue/ Dogri/ Give me, a quill, quickly/ She must be looking for me/
The reed cut off its hand/ Gave it to me and said/ Take it/ I too am her servant.”
What do we see in this? For one, we learn from this an important dimension of
the metaphorical mother on one side and language on the other. These two join
and come to represent a paradigm of initiative, positive truth and progress. Yet
further, the mother tongue, the language we grow up with, covers our whole
enterprise of living with one another. The idea of the mother tongue bestows
upon us prosperity and flowering, not individually but in a relationship of
togetherness. The scope of the mother tongue is so vast and energy-giving that
the stem itself joins the poet in their common search for fulfilment.
Activity 3
What do you think the last few lines of the poem convey?
4.3.2 Thematic Significance
The theme of “Mother Tongue” is clearly hinted in the previous part of the unit.
The poem sends out the message of human expression through sound patterns
that assume the form of language in social living. Sound patterns are signified
by “tongue.” Language helps a person preserve oneself as a mother would. She
speaks to the child who takes in her voice and responds – think of the bonding
between the child and the mother from the very beginning of one’s life.
Very deftly, however, another aspect is added to language, that of the quill which
raises language to the height of drawing symbols. The ink into which the quill is
dipped leaves specific marks on the surface of the paper. What the mother spoke
is transferred by the person to the sheet of paper. That, too, is language. Through
the actions of the writer, a whole new drama will unfold, that of expressing
ideas, impressions, emotions and other symbols of worldly use. The last is
economic and production-related. Further, a record is to be kept of the items
produced in society. This is covered by accounting. For the poet, accounting,
even if given and necessary, is of limited significance. From here, the message
of the poem branches out and goes into two distinct directions—use-related and
creative. The first one is critically assessed, whereas the second is lauded for its
visionary nature.
For the poet, commerce and trade are activities that take us away from the fun
42 and pleasure of life, rendering it prosaic and mundane. Mechanical and limited,
they give a vision of competition and profit, not of humanist values that believe
in creating an ethos of modernity. Writing accounts is considered equivalent to
assessing society as depending solely on utility. At a later stage, utility might
look at the whole social effort from the angle of making profits that are to be
constantly accumulated and multiplied. This also hits at resources of nature that
are meant to meet needs and requirements. Production aimed at competing with
other producers and not keeping focused on social needs results in waste. That is
how the stem countered the poet by asking why she was demanding another
quill when one had been given to her only the previous day. The pointed criticism
is of capitalist ventures that exploit nature’s resources only for personal gain.
Conversely, so far as the visionary nature of human initiative is concerned, the
poet has evoked the woman figure Shahni. Is there any significance of the man
being Shah and the woman being Shahni? We can see that Shah is a man of
commerce, engaged in trade of goods that are produced in society through use of
precious resources. Along with him, there isthe woman Shahni who is his opposite
in all respects. It stands to reason that we understand her as one who would
counter him from close quarters, as closely as a spouse. Yet, this is not said in the
poem. The poet lets us guess, a deliberate act of teasing the mind of the reader.
Shahni “has many servants” who would do what she would ask them to. This is
a simple statement, not a command on Shahni’s part. This is since she works
through affection, through an urge she creates in them for carrying out the task
she may assign to them. Also, “servants” does not denote employees, but those
who trust her fully and gladly perform the duty she expects them to accomplish.
Following this, the poet gives Shahni a name, ‘Mother Tongue’. It is interesting
that the name is enough to describe her, and to establish her as the embodiment
of sustenance. Through the mother tongue, humankind earns its identity, the
faculty of articulating its intent and spreading it to all who will then be connected
mutually, as if they belonged to one tribe. This unifying agency would ensure an
organic bonding among all the humans.
Activity 4
What is the significance of the female figure as opposed to the male?
4.3.3 ‘Mother Tongue’ as an Aesthetic Expression
In literature, we distinguish intent or message from the aesthetic form. As such,
the aesthetic form is the body or shape that separates one linguistic composition
from another, for instance, an essay on economics and a lyric meant to be sung.
The music or lyricism is the aesthetic quality of a song. What is the aesthetic
quality of the poem ‘Mother Tongue’? How does it stand separated from a
philosophical tract, or even a dramatic piece?
In ‘Mother Tongue’, we find pictures or images as well as snatches of
conversation. These are short and crisp. They also work at many levels and are
multi-layered. The poet walks to a stem, “approaches” it. It is easy to visualize a
person walking towards a small tree. Walking tells about movement, purpose, as
well as an inner need to connect with something or someone. Imagine a stem
“swinging on a reed.” It is a happy sight, as if the stem were dancing at a slow
pace. Next, the poet holds a conversation with the stem through human speech.
The act turns the stem into a human being who could hear and talk back. As the
conversation proceeds, a sort of enactment takes place—the poet and the stem share a situation involving request, suspicion, query, an explanation, and the
final coming together as part of a mission. The whole thing is transformed into a
game that the two have played and reach through it a happy joining. When the
problem is laid out, interpreted variously and moved towards a resolution, the
result is of fulfilment. An additional layer in the poem is that of the social truth
that sheds light on the clash of interests in society at one level and rejection of
commercialism at the hands of visionary art. Hanging delicately with it is the
fragrance of motherly bonding of language with the human subject who will in
turn communicate with all others. Count how many layers, levels, images, acts
and situations have been woven into the texture of this poem!
Activity 5
Trace the development of thought and images in the poem.
4.3.4 Language as MotherTongue andLanguage ofTranslation
Let us bear in mind that the poem ‘Mother Tongue’ is a translation from Dogri
into English. When the original writer’s piece is rendered in another linguistic
medium, it affects the original language and does something creative to the other
language. Also, you must realize that language enjoys nearness with its speaker
and changes shape and form in her/his hands. The translation plays another role
as well; it puts a composition in touch with the sensibility of a person other than
that of the original writer. This means that in the act of translation, two sensibilities
clash, contend and finally merge with each other. Keeping this in sight, let us
look at ‘Mother Tongue’ once more.
As we read the poem in its present form, a translation in English, we have an
indication of the words in Dogri. There, too, the words would have been simple,
close to the speech of children that hold a dialogue with one another. We might
also imagine a gap, a distance between Dogri and English. In the original, there
may have been a hint of the Dogri dialect that would evolve into a standardized
Dogri sometime later. That is not the case with English, which is in its standard,
established form in this poem. All these facts shed light on the nature of languages
in their different roles.
4.4 K. AYYAPPA PANIKER, THE MALAYALAM POET
K. Ayyappa Paniker, poet and critic, was born in 1930 in Kerala and received his
education up to Ph.D. in English. Later, he started teaching and assumed a key
role in the creative and academic field. He became a poet of great influence and
inspired a whole generation of poets. His critical work was in the domain of
literary theory; in it he participated actively and published many books. He wrote
poetry in Malayalam and English simultaneously. To quote his own words: “I
was in Bloomington, Indiana, from 1969 to 1971, doing my Ph.D. at Indiana
University, taking poetry with Samuel Yellen. I was perhaps writing
simultaneously in Malayalam, my mother tongue, and in English, my second
language. In the early days, it was quite easy to get used to the new surroundings
and make friends with Americans” (Quoted in Kumar 120).
K. Ayyappa Paniker’s poem ‘Passage to America’ given here for study is in fact
Section 7 of the long poem ‘Passage to America.’ The full text is published in
44 Many Mountains Moving, Vol. 1, no. 3.
4.5 TEXT OF ‘PASSAGE TO AMERICA’
it’s as if i suddenly meet you on the way
when i go for my usual walk in the evening
the earth that begins at your feet
seems to end at mine
the air you breathe out
enters into my lungs
and the light that escapes from your eyes
focuses on mine.
America
i see your map like the palm of a hand stretched out on my lap
mississippi traces your lifeline to the south
while the great lakes draw circles
along the st lawrence headline
but where is your heartline
on the mount of jupiter
new england cocks its eyes at Europe
your venus is still in heat
in the far south in florida
and the mount of moon
shimmers on the california beach
but america
where has vanished your heartline
has some test explosion
sucked it underground
i remember river phalgun
that goes dry in summer defying our prayers
where once the buddha got enlightenment
and learned to take the earth for a begging bowl
but here the fission and the fusion
your scientists envision
offer your palmist nothing but confusion
sailing back from mescalin to marijuana
someone said
there was never such a line
in this ancient newborn land
where we grow corn and PL 480
and make colour tv sets in plenty
till our chests are nearly empty
and brains spout tons of TNT
it’s christmas again
the shape of a heart neatly painted to a cross
that stand on a hill we have set up with skill.
(This poem has been translated from the original Malayalam by the author.)
4.5.1 Reading ‘Passage to America’.
The first thing we note in the text isthat it has avoided the use of the capital letter
entirely. Neither does the sentence begin with a capital letter, nor do names of
places, or references to people, such as the subject’s pronoun ‘I’, contain the big
letter. What could be the reason for it? Think and guess. My own guess is that
somewhere in the middle years of the twentieth century, the feeling among writers
was to look at the poetic venture subjectively. They wished to make a personal
statement for sharing their perspective on writing. The capital letter in writing
denoted special status. See the hidden bias in grammar. There is a reason behind
calling someone the first person, as also someone else the second and another
one the third. The same may hold true for the place one may refer to—the place
enjoys weight and, and may therefore, have the capital letter at the beginning.
Are divisions necessary in a longer paragraph? In speech, we stop to gather
breath. In composing, this has translated into closing and starting sentences. The
speech does not observe such rules consciously. Negation of such conventions
reflected a sense of revolt and rebellion on the part of the writer. Consider whether
the present poem has kept such a stance consciously.
The title of the poem is ‘Passage to America’. This takes us back to E.M. Forster’s
‘A Passage to India’. Later, Nirad C. Chaudhuri felt inspired to give the title ‘A
Passage to England’ to his account of confrontation with England. The similarity
of those titles with that of the present poem might say something in that regard.
Is that indeed the case? You might ponder over this issue. Yes, the poem talks of
the new and unfamiliar country Paniker has gone to. Also, there are many things
that occur to him while facing situations in America. As they are under the writer’s
lens, they urge the viewer to respond to them in a specific manner.
The opening lines are a bit strange, in that they make the writer alert about himself
in a peculiar way—the earth he carried from India ended where that of America
began. There is a sudden jolt and we wake up, as it were, to the new colours and
smells, and shapes of the country called America. (How does it feel when America
is spelt as ‘america’? Normal, unfamiliar, or mildly threatening?). The next
moment, we read a reference to the air— “the air you breathe out/ enters into my
lungs.” These lines next to those talking of the earth strengthen the feeling of a
new relationship that the author became conscious of. There is something to
taking in borrowed air into one’s lungs. The third statement is less raw than the
preceding ones. It is to do with exchanging stances, with someone looking at the
poet critically and thus unnerving him, rendering him self-conscious. In the
following description, three words capture our attention—lifeline, headline and
heartline. Isthe poet raising the issue of material aspects of life, first of the social
existence and then extending it specifically towards head (thinking, planning,
rational approach) and heart (feeling, sensing, linking with instincts)? That seems
to be the case. We from India might say that the more advanced a society, the
more it will take one away from matters of strong emotions such as of bonding,
roots, and traditions. These lead to the question— “but america/ where has
vanished your heartline?” Soon, quite explicitly, the poet refers to the culprit,
science— “some test explosion/ [that] sucked it (heartline) underground.” The poet draws a clear line of distinction between the (Indian) “river phalgun . . .
where once buddha got enlightenment” and (in America) “your fission and the
fusion/ your scientists envision.” Following this, some amalgamation takes place.
Towards the end, the poem mentions some meeting points. Mescalin and
marijuana affect the mind and make the faculty of reason blurred, whereas PL
480, TNT, and Christmas merge into one another to create confusion. We may
thus reach a problematic in which food, drugs and explosives make a blinding
mix. It appears that the poet has brought in an impossibility with which we might
have to contend.
4.5.2 Thematic Significance
The theme of the poem, call it concern if you like, is the clash of societies and
cultures. An Indian poet of middle class origins visits a new country far away
from his own. In the situation, it is a difficult task to relate to the unfamiliar
surroundings. In the text, one isfaced with a view, an impression, and a dramatic
addressing of the scene by a conscious observer. Additionally, the voice of the
observer has combined with that of a commentator and judge. Why? The reason
isthat he is a poet and carries cultural baggage from his own country. The address
contains an attitude of criticism and potential accommodation. The new place is
modern, advanced and technologically equipped to take care of life’s difficulties.
The poet came from an atmosphere of mysticism, vision, and sensuousness. The
clash gives rise to unease, questioning and a bit of negation. Will it lead to
reconciliation of the two cultures? The question is squarely posed. The answer
lies somewhere in the tone of the poem—it indicates recognition of specific
issues such as lack of conformity between head and heart, reason and feeling.
On could, thus, say that the more elaborate and broad the description, the better
chances would be of meeting things half way. Since there is no direct rejection
of the spectacle in front, the poet considers the phenomenon problem-ridden.
Recourse also is taken to outlining one’s view, and posing the riddle of the novel
ways. See that in the poem exist stances of philosophical viewing and connecting
threads. This is in the mind of the poet. On the other side stand adoptions of the
scientific and rational parameter of handling and controlling nature. Yet, at the
end we note a “neatly painted cross” and the use of skills for constructing a
specific scene up the hill. Is that not appreciative at least mildly? I say this since
irony too seems to have been worked into the image. This may be a combination
of acceptance and questioning in the larger frame of modernity.
4.5.3 ‘Passage to America’ as an Aesthetic Expression
In the present case, the aesthetic aspect would draw strength from the poetic
skills used by the poet. Indeed, Paniker does not state things as they exist, but
through the prism of his consciousness. All that he presents in the poem is loaded.
A part of the earth ending and another part beginning from that point is not
simple talk of an innocent person, but a version that compels the reader to think.
The poem happens not in front of the perceiver but deep down in his own mind
where pre-existing images influence that which he confronts. For this reason,
our attention might be drawn in the modern period to the craft of writing. Pramod
K. Nayar has observed, “The art of composition, the poet’s dilemma, the
anticipation of response and the issue of craftsmanship become the subject of
poetry” (in Ramanan 76). It is using a mirror in which the object isreflected. The
American scene is reflected in the mind of an Indian poet. Aesthetically speaking,
this is the case of dealing with a multi-dimensional phenomenon centrally governed by impressions. We might say that the poetic method discernible here
is of modernism that swore by images with a life of their own. Does the poet take
a position on the issues he is dealing with at the level of capturing them? We do
not see a clear or unequivocal position. Thus, presenting questions and enjoying
the worth inherent in them against the background of mild fascination is what he
has achieved. This is worked with the help of linguistic play visible in internal
rhyming as in— “that stand on a hill we have set up with skill,” or clever mixing
of meaning asin the “river phalgun/ that goes dry in summer defying our prayers.”
Activity 6
As you move from one place to another/ one state to another/ one country to
another, how does your understanding of belonging change?
4.5.4 English as Language of Translation in ‘Passage to America’
We know that “Passage to America” was written originally in Malayalam, and
the poet then translated it into English. There is the advantage that the poet’s
perceptions and imaginings were re-created in another linguistic medium not by
another person. If that had happened, the version may have evoked a different
view. Here, we have flow and spontaneity that make it quite close to what was
composed in Malayalam. Even if not familiar with Malayalam, we might
conjecture that in the poem a clear awareness about the potential American/
English reader exists. The scene captured in the poem tells us this. The ingenuity
of not using capital letters creates a distancing we cannot overlook. This takes
the attention of the reader away from the fact of translation. It also informs us
that the Malayalam original has been recreated in English through changing to
use of small letters as the word-play to which reference was made above, under
the head “aesthetic expression.”
4.6 LET US SUM UP
In this unit, we have discussed two poems— ‘Mother Tongue’ by Padma Sachdev
and ‘Passage to America’ by K. Ayyappa Paniker. The first poem presented the
complex issue of expression in the mother tongue that is an integral part of human
existence, whereas the second poem had the distance between two cultures at its
centre. The unit has also considered the two poems as texts in translation. The
aspects of theme, concerns and aesthetics have come in here, and we have seen
in them a significant link with life and culture in the modern period.
4.7 AIDS TO ACTIVITIES
Activity 1: Rhyme and metre have a lot to do with how a poem sounds when it is
read aloud.
Activity 2: The personification lends a sense of intimacy.
Activity 3: The ending conveys that the mother tongue is supreme.
Activity 4: As a female, it is seen as a creative force which assigns identity.
Activity 5: The poet utilises images from the world of nature and worldly power
leading to the conclusion that thre is nothing greater than the mother
48 toungue.
Activity 6: One feels a sense of belonging in various places at various points of
time.
4.8 GLOSSARY
Buddha got : The Buddha, literally one who has attained
enlightenment enlightenment. Enlightenment is synonymous with
self-knowledge, self-realization and that core in the
mind that is lighted for showing the truth clearly in
all situations. “buddha got enlightenment” means
Prince Gautam attained self-realization.
Conventional : use of meter and rhyme in verse as was the
versification convention. Later, in the nineteenth century, poets
took to writing verses with no binding of meter or
rhyme. The new form was called free verse.
Difference and : difference is dissimilarity between two things;
discrimination discrimination, however, is a negative term that
wilfully favours one person unjustifiably as against
another who is put down.
Envisioning : stretching the imagination to form a dream about a
phenomenon; idealizing.
‘Mother Tongue’ by Padma
Sachdev; ‘Passage to
America’ by K. Ayyappa
Paniker
4.9 QUESTIONS
1) Write a critical note on the poem ‘Mother Tongue’ by Padma Sachdev.
2) How does K. Ayyappa Paniker relate in his poem ‘Passage to America’ to
the American scene? Do you see the scope of reconciliation between the
values cherished by America and India? Explain.
3) Comment on the aesthetic aspect of the poem ‘Passage to America.’
4.10 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING
1) Kumar, Sukrita Paul. Ed., Cultural Diversity, Linguistic Plurality and
Literary Tradition. New Delh: OUP, 2015.
2) Naik, M.K. A History of Indian English Literature. New Delhi: Sahitya
(1982), rpt. 2004.
3) Ramanan, Mohan, Afeefa Banu and Pramod Nayar. Ed., Contemporary
Indian Poetry in English. New Delhi: Sahitya, 2010.
Block-3 Marginalized Voices Block-3
Block
3
Marginalized Voices
UNIT 1
Dalit Voices 5
UNIT 2
Dalit Voices – Poetry 17
UNIT 3
Literature from North East India 29
UNIT 4
Literature from North East India–Poetry 40
BLOCK 3 MARGINALIZED VOICES
This Block will acquaint the learner with Dalit writing and Writings from North
East India. It will deal with the question of Dalit aesthetics, discuss the changes
that have taken place over the years in the Dalit movement and offer learnersthe
opportunity to acquire a fair understanding of Dalit writers’ use of language,
imagery and form. The North East region is geographically as well as culturally
and linguistically different from the so-called mainstream India. There is a
tendency to view people from this region as exotic and homogenous.By
introducing the learner to the various trends in the writings from the sister states
in the North East, it will facilitate a better understanding of its literature.
UNIT 1 DALIT VOICES
Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Excerpts ‘Dalit Sahitya – The Historical Background’ by Eleanor Zelliot
1.3 What is Dalit Literature?
1.3.1 B.R. Ambedkar and Literature
1.3.2 Discussion of the text
1.4 Let Us Sum Up
1.5 Glossary
1.6 Aids to Activities
1.7 Unit End Questions
1.8 References and Suggested Reading
1.0 OBJECTIVES
In this unit we shall try to understand Dalit Literature by reading an essay by
Eleanor Zelliot: ‘Dalit Sahitya: the Historical Background’. By the end of the
unit you should be able to answer certain fundamental questions on Dalit literature
like, what is Dalit literature? Why does one need to study Dalit literature? What
is the difference between Dalit literature and other literature? What are the
aesthetics of Dalit literature and the various changes that have happened in the
course of the Dalit movement?
Words given in bold throughout this unit are explained in the Glossary at the
end.
Activity 1
Before we begin, briefly jot down what according to you is Dalit literature.
Compare it with what you read later in the unit and at the end in Aids to
Activities.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The word Dalit literally means broken people. In the Indian caste hierarchy,
the position at the lowest rung is known as the untouchable or the Dalit. They
lived (and many of them still live) a precarious existence, rejected, discriminated
against and abused by the upper caste. They were forced to work in degraded
conditions, denied the right to acquire land and rendered almost to an inhuman
state. Thus, the literature born out of this suffering, injustice and inequality is a
narrative of agony and protest. Protest and resistance become a way of expression
in Dalit literature.
The medium of expression in Dalit literature is poetry, autobiographies and short
stories. There is also a pertinent question on whether Dalit literature can only be
written by Dalits since Dalit literature as mentioned above, is an expression of the lived experiences of discrimination and oppression. Can non-Dalit writers
and their works (if it relates to Dalits) be considered as Dalit literature? Perhaps
the difference lies in sympathy and empathy. Despite this debate, one cannot
deny that many prominent non-Dalit writers (like F M Shinde, included in this
course) have contributed significantly to Dalit literature.
Activity 2
From what you have read so far, what do you understand by the term Dalit?
Though the beginning of the Dalit movement/literature is associated with
Maharashtra, today it has spread to different parts of the country where caste and
class has been a medium to oppress a section of society. As the caste system is a
harsh reality in India, injustice and suffering born out of this system is a fact one
cannot deny. Thus, Dalit literature is a voice of resistance against the
marginalisation, oppression and discrimination faced on a daily basisin different
areas of life by a major section of the society. One needs to be extra sensitive
while dealing with the aesthetics of Dalit literature.
1.2 EXCERPTS ‘DALIT SAHITYA – THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND’ BY ELEANOR ZELLIOT
Eleanor Zelliot was a professor of History at the University of Minnesota USA
with social and cultural history as her areas of special interest. She worked and
published extensively on the Dalit movement including Dalit and Buddhist
conversions. From Untouchable to Dalit (1996) is one of her well-known books.
Now read the following excerpts and make notes as you go along in order to get
more out of the discussion that will follow:
The Dalit Sahitya (literature of the oppressed) movement in Maharashtra seems
to be unique – not in the phenomenon of former Untouchables writing literature,
but in the quality of writing, its variety, its aesthetic considerations, its sense of
being a movement, its tiesto social action, and in the serious attention it receives
as a school within the Mararthi literary traditions. Parallel movements in Dalit
writing have now appeared in the neighbouring states of Karnataka and Gujarat,
and Dalit Sahitya may someday be an all-India movement.
The meaning of Dalit in Hindi and Marathi is ‘ground down, depressed’. And is
now used by politicized Untouchables in preference to any other designation.
The term is one of pride – Untouchables have been oppressed by others; there is
nothing inherently wrong with them. Their insistence on the use of Dalit has
been recognized officially, and the state governments of Maharashtra, Madhya
Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh have issued orders that Dalit be the term used, rather
than Harijan, Scheduled Caste, or Untouchable.
Dalit creativity in all its phases is closely tied to the movement begun by the
Mahar caste before the turn of this century. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar came to dominate
this movement in the 1920s, and its current achievements and stance, as well as
the predominantly Buddhist belief of the movement’s members, are due to his
shaping…
The Mahars, a large Marathi-speaking caste now eighty percent Buddhist, and
disclaiming caste, had a traditional role of ‘inferior village servant,’ as the British
called them. They constituted about nine per cent of the population of the Marathi
speaking area in Western India, and are found in every village throughout
Maharashtra Their traditional work was to serve the village as watchmen,
removers of dead cattle, messengers, i.e. all-purpose servants but with some
very important duties.They also were traditionally the singers, dancers, comedians
and drummers of the folk drama e.g. Tamasha. Along with the other untouchable
castes in the area, Mangs and Chambhars, the well and temple were closed to
them, and their living quarters were removed from the village proper. Before the
19th century, the only recorded voice of the Mahar was that of Chokhamela, a
14th-century poet-saint within the devotional religious tradition called Bhakti.
Although beloved by other poet saints, Chokhamela lived as a traditional village
Mahar.
Although many of Chokhamela’s poems sing of the glory of God Vitthal and
meaning of devotion,some do protest against untouchability. Others acknowledge
social inferiority and find comfort in religious equality, such as this Abhanga,
which is very popular today:
The sugarcane may be crooked but its juice is not
Why are you deceived by the way things look?…
Chokha may be ill-shaped, but not his God Vitthal,
Why are you deceived by the way things look?
… Between Chokhamela and the beginning of the modern movement, there is no
literature other than remembered legends and myths. The first document of the
new movement, however, is not only a full-blown indictment of the caste
hierarchy sanctioned by scriptures but also bears with it a poem of protest. The
dominant figure in this early period was Gopal Baba Walangkar, an ex-soldier
and a Mahar, who started a newspaper, publicly challenged caste Hindus about
their treatment of Untouchables, and petitioned the British Government to allow
the recruitment of Untouchablesinto the army, a practice which had been stopped
about 1890…
Within ten years of Walangkar’s petition, a whole generation of leadersship had
sprung up, urging those Marathas who had left the village for work in the mills,
on the railroad, on the docks, to educate themselves and to organize to gain
strength. While Walangkar and other early leaders were from the Bombay and
Pune areas, Nagpur also formed a strong part of the movement. Kisan Fago
Bansode left a small volume of poetry along with his work for newspapers,
libraries, conferences…
Twenty years after Bansode and the equally important leader from Pune, Shivram
Janba Kamble, began their work, a leader arose who was much better educated,
even more capable in spreading a modern message of equality, one who could
spread the movement far beyond the Mahar caste. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar (1891-
1956) was a distant relative of Walangkar and took pride in the army background
of Walangkar and his own father…
He was not only by far the most highly educated Untouchable in India, he probably
held more degreesthan any Brahman in the Maharashtra area. He represented all
the Untouchable could hope to be, he remained identified with his people, and he was extraordinarily competent in securing rightsfrom the British Government
as it began to democratize its parliamentary structures in India…
Ambedkar’s political work, which was the base of the movement, must be given
short shrift here as a subject too complex for easy generalizations… The vital
concern with political, however, maybe be seen in the development of the Dalit
Panthers, an organization founded in 1972 by writers to protest both atrocities
against Untouchables in the villages and the ineffectiveness of the Republican
Party founded by Ambedkar just before his death in 1956…The founders of the
Panthers, Namdeo Dhasal and Raja Dhale, were poets, committed both to literature
and to ‘literature as a weapon’ against social injustice. The head-line years of the
Panthers, 1971-73, may also be said to mark the true beginning of the Dalit
Sahitya movement, although individual writers had appeared earlier.
Another era of Ambedkar’s leadership, that of religious conversion may be just
as important a factor in the development of Dalit Sahitya as education and
politics…
The Buddhist conversion came almost thirty years after a great ‘satyagraha’
for water at Mahad in 1928, an event which many use as a poetic image for
protest, and after years of fruitless attempts at temple entry. It came after it became
clear that independent India’s new Constitution, which Dr. Ambedkar helped
frame as Chair of the Drafting Committee, could outlaw untouchability but not
remove the idea of pollution and hierarchy from hearts and minds. Chokhamela’s
protestfrom within the system, Bansode’s critical love for Hinduism, were rejected
as no longer adequate for men and women who wanted social and psychological
freedom…Baburao Bagul, a majorshortstory writer, datesthe beginning of Dalit
Sahitya from the Buddhist conversion of 1956…
Within two years of the conversion, the first major figure in Dalit Sahitya,
Shankarao Kharat, published a book of short stories; Bara Baluetdar appeared
in 1958. In it each of the servants of the traditional village, including the Mahar
‘inferior village servant,’ to use that telling British phrase, is the subject of a
gentle character sketch. Kharat now has two dozen or so books to his credit,
including an edition of Ambedkar’s letters and a history of the Buddhist
conversion. But his main thrust is the description of the life of the Mahar and of
other lowly people in the traditional village. His writing is sad but not too bitter,
descriptive rather than analytical. A different style appeared soon after Kharat
with Baburao Bagul whose short stories are much more forceful, often based on
city life, more realistic in their description of violence and vulgarity…
In late 1960s, the trickle of Dalit writing became a flood. The highly regarded
journal Marathwada featured Dalit writing in a 1969 issue. By November 25,
1973, the Bombay Times of India could give over a special Times Weekly issue
entirely to Dalit poetry and stories, translated into English…
It is with (the Dalit Panthers) that Dalit poetry becomes one of the most important
strands in recent Marathi literature… Namdeo Dhasal (1949-2014) was Defence
Minister, J.V. Pawar (1944) was General Secretary, Arun Kamble (1952) and
Arjun Dangle were ardent young members of that first group…
Other poets emerged outside the Panther group…Daya Pawar (1935-1996) not
only published poetry but wrote a somewhat fictionalized autobiography which he titled Balut, the name of the arrangement by which the Mahar in the village
performed histraditional work. Balut was widely praised and was very influential,
and the writing of autobiographies is now an important feature of Marathi
literature, not only among Buddhists but also in other Dalit groups. Tryambak
Sapkale (1930) published Surung (Explosion) in 1976, and immediately won the
poetry prize in Marathi for the year. Waman Nimbalkar (1939-) published his
first, romantic poem in 1959, but by 1973, he titled his Dalit poetry collection
Gaokushabaheril Kavita (poetry from the outskirts of the village)…
The most recent trend in the ever-changing field of Dalit literature isthe increasing
importance of women poets. Hira Bansode (1939-)… (is) a feminist as well as a
staunch Ambedkarite. Mina Gajbhiye (1957-) died after composing a number of
very moving poems… Women have also entered the biographical field, and two
Buddhist women with marginal education have published their autobiographies
in Marathi…
New language, new experiences, new sources of poetic inspiration, new entrants
into a field previously dominated by high-castes –- these are all non-controversial
accomplishments of Dalit Sahitya. There is, however, much controversy. Critics
have asked: Can there be Dalit literature, or can there only be literature, regardless
ofsubject? Can only Dalits write Dalit literature? Can educated ex-Untouchables
whose lifestyle is now somewhat middle class be considered Dalit? Those in the
Dalit school would say: Yes, there is Dalit literature. Only Dalits can write it
because only they have experienced the social as well as the economic problems
of the lowest of castes. And when educated and no longer poor, they not only
remember their childhood, they also suffer from the idea of pollution which
remains strong in the Hindu mind, and they identify with their village brothers
and sisters who are still subject to outrageous treatment when they claim their
full human rights.
1.3 WHAT IS DALIT LITERATURE?
‘Dalit Literature is not simply literature … Dalit literature is associated with a
movement to bring about change… at the very first glance, it will be strongly
evident that there is no established critical theory or point of view behind them;
instead there is new thinking and a new point of view.’ (Dangle, 1994)
Arjun Dangle, the Marathi Dalit writer, editor, activist says that Dalit literature
is marked by ‘revolt’ and ‘negativism’ since it is closely associated with the
‘hopes for freedom’ by a group of people who, as untouchables, are victims of
social, economic, and cultural inequality (Mukherjee, 2018).
By now we have seen that ‘Dalit literature’ is not written for entertainment or as
a reflection of emotions and feelings but with a ‘purpose’. The ‘purpose’ is to
expose the age old exploitation on the basis of ‘caste’ in India and resist such
atrocities while at the same time assert the identity of the marginalised and
dispossessed people. Thus, Dalit literature is a literature of commitment. Through
literature, the Dalits became a ‘speaking subject’ whom the upper caste Hindus
have tried to suppressfor decades. As Dalit literature is committed to upliftment,
it is revolutionary and transformational in nature; it is also political. The claim
that Dalit literature is revolutionary and transformational is not based on the fact
that all Dalit writers adhere to a radical ideology, such as socialism or Marxism.
It rests on the view that, inasmuch as transforming the condition of the Dalit and
challenging caste is a revolutionary cause, a literature that is entirely dedicated
to this cause is, by definition, radical. (Mukherjee) It is considered that
the ‘radicalism’ comes from the Dalit leader Dr. B.R. Ambedkar’s ideas and
thinking.
Activity 3
Why do we need to read Dalit literature?
Thus, what Dalit literature presents is a rejection of tradition (a tradition that
suppressed them) and an authentic experience of ‘Dalitness’. Often, the
representation is found to be ‘not pleasant’ as it is unflinching in its portrayal.
We find violence, conflict, death – at the same time sharing, warmth, struggle in
its true nature, without romanticising it, in Dalit literature. The language is stark,
direct, detailing most of the time, the humiliation, wretchedness, miserable
condition of life and more. Dalit literature not only rejects the traditions of the
mainstream literature, but also aesthetics and language.
As we have heard that Dalit literature represents the authentic experience of the
Dalits, the popular mode of narrative is life writing (autobiography, biography).
We know that Dalit literature rejectsthe mainstream ‘language’. Thus, the minute
details of every day struggle are written in a language that is opposed to the
upper caste ‘language’ which is refined and proper. Thus, the language in Dalit
literature is often crude and uncivil. This authenticates the lived experience of
the Dalits.
By now, we have a fair idea of what Dalit literature is, how it is different from
the mainstream literature, its use of language and the difference in terms of literary
aesthetics. For a quick reminder, let’s check the points we have discussed so far.
Dalit literature is a movement to bring about change.
Dalit literature is written with a ‘purpose’.
It is‘committed’to the exposition and assertion of authentic Dalit experience.
It rejects the tradition, aesthetics, and language of the ‘mainstream’ literature.
1.3.1 B.R. Ambedkar and Literature
B.R. Ambedkar remains the most powerful leader of the Dalits and the
revolutionary Dalit Panthers’ movementstarted following histhoughts and action,
his ideas and messages. His conversion to Buddhism gave hope to thousands of
downtrodden Dalits to free themselves from a religion and its caste system that
had bound them in mean tasks and inhuman conditions. In order to fully
understand the atrocious caste restrictions, we must take a look at the manifestation
of the caste system. (Limbale)
1) Heredity: The child belongs to the same caste as the parents.
2) Marriage Restrictions: Marriage outside one’s caste is prohibited.
3) Profession: Taking up the work of another caste while giving up one’s
paternally inherited profession is banned (which meansthat if your forefather
had been a tanner – a person who makes leather from dead animal skin –
there is no option for you or the future generations of your family to choose
any profession other than that of a tanner. So a cleaner will always remain a
cleaner – and not just him/her but their entire line of future generations.
Now we see the inhuman restrictions that have been exploiting the Dalits
for ages as they were always given what was considered as the dirtiest jobs
from the very beginning.
4) Dietary Rules: Distinction is made not only between vegetarian and meat
based diets but even the touching the food and water of the people seen as
inferior, and from a different religion is prohibited (here we might remember
the Mahad march (1927) led by Ambedkar to a public tank to fetch water.
Animals were allowed to drink water from the tank but not a Dalit. If by
chance a Dalit touched a water source, it had to be purified by conducting
certain rites.
5) Hierarchy: Some castes are regarded as upper and others lower (now go
back to point number 1, and see how a person born in an upper caste keeps
enjoying the upper hand for generations whereas the lower caste-born is
stuck in the oppression for generations).
Thus, Ambedkar’s fight against the exploitation of the cruel caste system, his
work, his struggle to bring social equality for the oppressed people became an
inspiration and an awakening for the Dalit society and Dalit writers. You might
have noticed that Dalits greet each other with the words ‘Jai Bhim’. It is none
other than a mark of respect for the inspirational figure, Bhimrao Ambedkar who
brought self respect and dignity into the lives of many downtrodden.
In the field of literature, Ambedkar’s stand is realistic. He openly rejected the
Manusmriti as it fosters inequality. He said ‘Manusmriti is not acceptable to us,
given its endorsement of inequality. Why should we not burn such a text?’. And
in actuality, he burned the text in public. Literature according to him should be
accountable to society and humanity. Thus, Dalit literature inspired by Ambedkar’s
humanism has ‘humanity’ at its core. Dalit literature is about freedom and
liberation of human beings. As inequality is a fact among human beings in caste
society, rebellion becomes an integral part of the Dalit literature.
1.3.2 Discussion of the Text
Eleanor Zelliot says that Dalit Sahitya in Maharshtra is unique in terms of its
quality of writing, its variety, its aesthetics and its relation to social action and
politics. Dalit literature has become a school within the Marathi literary tradition
and has spread to other states like Karnataka and Gujarat.
The word ‘Dalit’ which means ‘ground down, depressed’, ‘broken people’ is an
accepted, recognised (officially) term which is preferred by politicised
Untouchables other than any other designation. The term is one of ‘pride’, it is
accepting oneselfsince there is no denying that untouchables have been oppressed
by others.
Activity 4
Why do you think that the term ‘Dalit’ is a matter of pride?
The Dalit movement, which was led by one of the most prominent leaders, Dr. B
R Ambedkar in the 1920’s, has close association with the movement begun by the Mahar caste in Maharashtra. The Mahar caste, whose traditional work were
to remove dead cattle, act as village watchmen or all purpose servants, were not
allowed to live in the same village with the other caste Hindus. They were also
not allowed into the temples. Such discrimination can be seen in poetry as far
back asin the 14th century, of the poet-saint Chokhamela, who lived as a traditional
village Mahar. Though his poetry sings mostly of the glory of god, some are a
protest against untouchability.
According to Zelliot, there hasn’t been much literature from Chokhamela to the
beginning of the modern Dalit literary movement other than legends and myths.
In the early period of the movement, Gopal Baba Walangkar, an ex-soldier, a
Mahar played a significant role in the momentum of the movement by starting a
newspaper, publicly challenging caste Hindus about their discrimination of
untouchables and petitioning the British Government to allow recruitment of
untouchables into the army. Following Walangkar, many Marathis united and
educated themselves to gain strength. Another important leader who came after
Walangkar is Shivram Janba Kamble, an educated leader who spread the modern
message of equality far beyond the Mahar caste.
Activity 5
What was the Mahar movement?
The most important leader of the Dalit movement, a distant relative of Walangkar,
a highly educated ‘Untouchable’was Dr. BR Ambedkar. He represented all the
untouchables, identified with his people and played an important part in the
democratising the parliamentary structure on India.
Zelliot talks about Ambedkar’s political work and the religious conversion to
Buddhism (1956) under his leadership which became important factors in the
development of Dalit Sahitya. The concern with politics may be seen in the
development of Dalit Panthers, founded in 1972 by writers to protest atrocities
against untouchables. Namdeo Dhasal and Raja Dhale, both poets and founders
of the Panthers were committed to literature and ‘literature as a weapon’ to fight
for social justice.
Another major figure in Dalit Sahitya is Shankarrao Kharat, who came after two
years of the religious conversion. Although his writing talked about the suffering
of the Dalits, his was not a forceful voice. But writers who came after him started
writing more powerful, more realistic descriptions of violence and vulgarity.
Activity 6
Who were the Dalit Panthers?
By the 1960s, many writers had joined the movement and a large number of
literary works was produced. Notable writers were Namdeo Dhasal, J.V. Pawar,
Arun Kamble and Arjun Dangle. Eleanor also talks about the increasing
importance of women poets in Dalit literature. Some important names are Hira
Bansode, Mina Gajabhiya, Bama etc.
The essay concludes with some poignant questions that critics have asked, ‘Can
there be a Dalit literature?’;‘Can only Dalits write Dalit literature?’;‘Can educated
ex-Untouchables whose life style is now somewhat middle class be considered
Dalit?’ The answers from the Dalit School is, YES, there is a Dalit literature and
only Dalits can write Dalit literature as they have gone through the experiences
of suppression and discrimination. Now we might like to remember that there
are known non-Dalit writers like F M Shinde who have contributed to Dalit
literature. Thus, it is a debatable question and answer as well. Regarding the last
question, even when educated and no longer poor, one will always remember
one’s childhood experiences and suffer from the mentality of caste Hindus who
display prejudice on the basis of caste. One will also look out for those less
fortunate who are denied equality and humanity and claim the basic right everyone
deserves.
1.4 LET US SUM UP
In this unit you have read the essay by Eleanor Zelliot, ‘Dalit Sahitya – The
Historical Background’ and have learned what Dalit literature is. You have also
understood the origin of the Dalit movement and its relation to literature. We
have discussed variousfactorsthat contributed and shaped the current movement
that we see today. We have also learned that there is the need to look at the
aesthetics of Dalit literature with sensitivity and understanding.
1.5 GLOSSARY
Abhanga : short narratives sung in between narration of stories.
Aesthetics : philosophical theory of what is beautiful.
Analytical : relating to logicalreasoning, examining things carefully.
Ardent : passionate, enthusiastic.
Atrocities : wicked or cruel act.
Autobiography : account of a person’s life written by self.
Buddhist conversion: in 1956 nearly half a million Dalits joined Ambedkar
and converted to Buddhism.
Chokhamela : poet-saint of Mahar caste in 14th century India.
Controversial : giving rise to controversy or public disagreement.
Dalit Panthers : A social organisation founded in 1972, 29th May to
combat caste discrimination
Democratize : introduce a democratic system.
Descriptive : serving or seeking to describe.
Designation : the word of words by which someone or something is
called and classified or distinguished from others.
Disclaim : refuse to acknowledge
Docks : enclosed area of water in a port for the loading,
unloading, and repair of ships.
Entrant : candidate; applicant
Harijan : Mahatma Gandhi popularized the term for communities
traditionally considered as untouchable which is now
considered as derogatory and is no longer in use.
Hierarchy : a system in which members of an organisation orsociety
are ranked according to relative status or authority.
Indictment : a formal charge or accusation of a serious crime.
Inherent : in the nature of something
Legend : a traditional story regarded as history, but not
authenticated.
Mahar : an untouchable community in Maharashtra.
Mangs and :
Chambhars
Untouchable communities in Maharashtra
Manusmriti : (The Laws of Manu) is one of the most authoritative
Hindu Law Books which was a foundational work of
Hindu law and jurisprudence in ancient India for at least
1500 years. In contemporary times, many consider
Manusmriti as outdated and archaic as several laws of
Manu justify oppression of women and lower castes.
Myth : a traditional story involving supernatural beings or
events.
Outrageous : shockingly bad or excessive.
Petition : a formal written request typically signed by many people
appealing to authority.
Politicize : give a political character to something
Predominant : present as the strongest or main element
Psychological :
freedom
ability to structure your own life through managing your
emotions and applying your free will.
Recruitment : the action of enlisting new people in the armed forces.
Sanction : official permission or approval for an action.
Satyagraha for :
water
it was a Satyagraha led by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar on 20th
March 1927 to allow untouchables to use water in a
public tank in Mahad, Maharashtra.
Scriptures : the sacred writings of a religion.
Strand : an element that forms part of a complex whole.
Tamasha : Marathi theater involving song and dance
Vital : important.
Vitthal : Hindu deity worshipped in Maharashtra, considered as
a manifestation of God Vishnu.
Vulgarity : state of being vulgar or offensive.
1.6 AIDS TO ACTIVITIES
Activity 1: The word Dalit literally means broken people. In the Indian caste
hierarchy, the position at the lowest rung is known as the untouchables or the
Dalits. They live a precarious existence, rejected, discriminated and abused by
the upper caste.
Activity 2: Dalit literature is literature by/for the Dalits. It is born out of the
suffering, injustice and inequality meted out to a certain section of the society. It
is most of the time a narrative of agony and protest. Protest and resistance thus
become a way of expression in Dalit literature.
Activity 3: As the caste system is a harsh reality in India, injustice and suffering
born out of this system is a fact one cannot deny. Dalit literature is a voice of
resistance against the marginalisation, oppression and discrimination faced on a
daily basis in different areas of life by a major section of the society. One needs
to be extra sensitive while dealing with the aesthetics of Dalit literature.
Activity 4: Dalit means ‘broken people’ and accepting the ‘term’ as one’s
designation means accepting the fact that one has suffered at the hands of an
unjust society. Thus, it becomes a matter of pride in embracing your own self
and asserting one’s identity.
Activity 5: The Mahar movement was a movement under the leadership of Dr.
B.R. Ambedkar where his followers converted to Buddhism. It rejected the
religion of the caste Hindus, which followed the principles of hierarchy and
inequality. By embracing Buddhism, Mahars belonged to a religion that stood
for egalitarian values and equality. This helped them to gain self-respect and
esteem on the one hand and to protest against the religion of the upper castes on
the other.
Activity 6: Dalit Panthers was founded by Namdeo Dhasal and Raja Dhale,
who were both poets and committed to using literature as a weapon againstsocial
injustice. It was an organization founded in 1972 by the writers to protest against
the injustice done to the Untouchables in the village and the ineffectiveness of
the Republican Party founded by Ambedkar just before his death in 1956. The
Dalit Panthers organisation is considered as a marker of the true beginning of the
Dalit literary movement.
1.7 UNIT END QUESTIONS
1) Why was the protest of Chokhamela and Bansode considered inadequate in
the later phase of the Dalit movement?
2) Write a short note on B.R.Ambedkar’s contribution to the Dalit movement.
3) Why does Dalit literature reject tradition?
4) Why do you think the literature of the Dalits is ‘committed’ to the Dalit
experience?
5) Write a brief note on the aesthetics of Dalit literature.
1.8 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING
1) Ambedkar, BR. 2003. Ambedkar: Autobiographical Notes. Introduction by
Ravikumar. Pondicherry: Navayana
2) Anand, Mulkraj and Zelliot, Eleanor, (eds). 1992. An Anthology of Dalit
Literature (Poems). New Delhi: Gyan Publishing House, pp. 1-6, 18-19.
3) Appendix II, Dalit Panthers Manifesto, (Bombay 1973) http://
shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/14528/15/15_appendicies.pdf
4) Bama. 2000. Karukku. Translated by Lakshmi Holmstron. Chennai:
Macmillan
5) Dangle, Arjun, (ed). 1992. Poisoned Bread: Translationsfrom Marathi Dalit
Literature. Hyderabad: Orient Longman
6) Ilaiah, Kancha. 1996. Why I am not a Hindu: A Sudra Critique of Hindutva
Philosophy, Culture and Political Economy. Calcutta: Samya.
7) Limbale, Sharankumar. 2018. Towards an Aesthetic of Dalit Literature:
History Controversies and Considerations. Translated by Alok Mukherjee.
New Delhi: Orient Blackswan Private Limited.
8) Manu Smriti www.britannica.com/topic/Manu-smriti
9) Omvedt, Gail. 1994. Dalits and the Democratic Revolution: Dr. Ambedkar
and the Dalit Movement in Colonial India. New Delhi: Sage Publications.
10) ———— [1995] 1996. Dalit Visions. Tracks for the Times/8. Hyderabad:
Orient Longman.
11) Vyam, Durgabai and Vyam, Subhash. 2011. Bhimayana: Experiences of
Untouchability, New Delhi: Navayana.
12) Zelliot, Eleanor. 2000. ‘Sant Sahitya and Dalit Movements.’ In Meera
Kosambi, ed., Intersections: Socio-cultural Trends in Maharashtra.
Hyderabad: Orient Longman
UNIT 2 DALIT VOICES – POETRY
Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Dalit Poetry
2.2.1 The Dalit Panthers Movement
2.2.2 Aesthetics and Dalit Poetry
2.2.3 Dalit Women Writers
2.3 Text – F M Shinde: ‘Habit’
2.3.1 Reading the Poem
.2.3.2 Interpretation
2.4 Text – NT Rajkumar: ‘Untitled Poem’
2.4.1 Reading the Poem
2.4.2 Discussion
2.5 Let Us Sum Up
2.6 Aids to Activities
2.7 Unit End Questions
2.8 References and Suggested Reading
2.0 OBJECTIVES
This unit is the poetry section of the Block on Dalit Voices. The two poets that
we will take up for detailed discussion in the unit are FM Shinde and NTRajkumar.
After reading the unit you will be able to:
comment on the two poems critically
grasp the aesthetics of Dalit poetry
have a fair understanding of their use of language, imagery and form
2.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit you studied the various nuances of Dalit literature, its
beginnings, various factors that shaped the literary movement and the aesthetics
pertaining to it. You also read that poetry has been a major mode of expression
and it serves as the voice of protest and resistance. In this unit we will take up
two poets and try to understand and interpret the poems. We will try to locate
these poems and what they signify in the larger picture of Dalit literature.
2.2 DALIT POETRY
‘A poem is a fictional, verbally inventive, moral statement in which it is the
author rather than the printer or word processor who decides where the lines
should end.’ (Terry Eagleton)
Terry Eagleton defines a poem as a moral statement yet he clarifies that ‘poems
aremoralstatementsthen, not because they launch stringent judgement according to some code commands but because they deal in human values, meanings and
purposes.’ Thus, morality has to do with ‘behaviour’ not just ‘good behaviour’.
‘A poem is a fictional…statement’ – here, we might like to clarify that fictional
doesn’t primarily mean ‘imaginary’ but it can be ‘fictionalized fact’. It can have
an original context, experience which is fictionalized to use in a wider frame. We
can look at the following lines by Robert Frost to understand the above statement
better.
The woods are lovely, dark and deep
But I have miles to go before I sleep
But I have miles to go before I sleep
The poet might have created this fictional journey of a traveller passing by the
woods and his hesitation to stay and appreciate the beauty of nature as he has
miles to go before he sleeps. But we can also locate the lines of the poem in the
fact that modern men have less time to spare for the beauty of nature in the rat
race where everyone is competitive. The lines also talk about human behaviour,
choice etc. By now, you have fairly understood the nature of poetry in general.
We have to remember that poetry may/may not feature rhyme, metre, rhythm,
imagery symbolism etc.
Now that you understand the general definition of poetry, let us try to locate
Dalit poetry in this context. First of all, what is Dalit poetry? Poetry written by
Dalits, about Dalits, for the Dalits, which portrays their pain, anger, sorrow,
poverty, humiliation etc. can be termed as Dalit poetry. As Dalit poetry expresses
the social evils endured by all the Dalits, it tends to take the form of a collective
expression. Limbale says, ‘a unique feature of Dalit literature is its collective
aspect. The experience described in Dalit literature issocial, hence, it is articulated
as collective in character. Therefore, even when the experience expressed in
Dalit literature is that of an individual, it appears to be that of a group. For this
reason, it is alleged that there is no individual in Dalit literature.’
As the experiences of most of the exploited and the oppressed are common, the
poetry that reflects those experiences of suffering can be seen as univocal.
Suffering is one common aspect of Dalit poetry. We have read in the previous
unit about the caste system in which the Dalits are oppressed and rendered
inhuman and so it is but natural to see suffering and pain as part of creative
output. According to the laws and rules of Manusmriti, Dalits could not own
property, jewellery, could take food only in clay utensils, not own cattle other
than donkeys and dogs,should have an ‘inauspicious and crude name’ (Limbale).
Such inhuman commands were ‘supposedly’ created by God and therefore Dalits
were supposed to accept it and not rebel against it. These were the circumstances
in which Dalits lived. Thus the earliest form of Dalit poetry (like Chokhamela’s
songs) talks of finding solace in God and his creation. But the modern Dalit
poets have traversed far – from seeking solace to transforming the suffering and
pain into a form of rebellion, thus giving it the shape of rejection and revolution.
Modern Dalit poems, post the Dalit Panthers movement are a revolt against the
inhuman system and unequal social order and demand freedom. In order to
understand modern Dalit poetry, we will have to look at the movement called the
Dalit Panthers movement.
Activity 1
Why does writing by Dalits take on the form of collective expression?
2.2.1 The Dalit Panthers Movement
As already recounted in the previous unit, the Dalit Panthers was a social
organisation founded on 29th May 1972, by writers to protest atrocities against
the untouchablesin Maharashtra. Namdeo Dhasal,JV Pawar, Arun Kamble were
the founders of the movement which was inspired by the Black Panthers
Movement in America against the social/racial discrimination against AfricanAmericansin the mid 20th century. The Dalit Panthers advocated the ideology of
B.R. Ambedkar, Jyotirao Phule and Karl Marx. The movement led to a boom on
the literary front where a lot of revolutionary Dalit literature flooded the scene
(mostly written in Marathi). We can say that the movement led to TheRenaissance
of Dalit literature. Now let ustake a quick look atsome points of the Dalit Panthers
manifesto published in 1973:
“Who is a Dalit?… members of scheduled caste and tribes, neo Buddhists, the
working people, the landless and poor peasants, women and all those who are
being exploited politically, economically and in the name of religion… The
struggle for emancipation of the dalits needs a complete revolution. Partial change
isimpossible. We do not want it either. We want a complete and total revolutionary
change. Even if we want to move out of the present state of social degradation
alone, we will have to exercise our power in economic, political, cultural fields
as well.”
We might also keep in mind that the translation of Dalit poetry in English mostly
from Marathi happened with the publication of An Anthology of Dalit Literature
edited by Mulk Raj Anand and Eleanor Zelliot (the introduction part of which
we have read in the first unit) and Poisoned Bread: Translations from Modern
Marathi Dalit Literature edited by Arjun Dangle in 1992. The English translation
has helped in making the genre of Dalit poetry a pan Indian phenomenon. Today
the movement of Dalit poetry has spread to many parts of the country and has
helped to awaken people from differentsocialstrata and thus contributed to Dalit
literature.
2.2.2 Aesthetics and Dalit Poetry
“Introduced into the philosophical lexicon during the Eighteenth Century, the
term ‘aesthetic’ has come to be used to designate, among other things, a kind of
object, a kind of judgment, a kind of attitude, a kind of experience, and a kind of
value.” (Shelley, 2017)
Aesthetics is a branch of philosophy that delves into the discussion and
appreciation of beauty, taste, and the nature of art. Aesthetics also concerns itself
with creating and appreciating all things that are beautiful or impart pleasure to
the senses. The understanding of beauty in terms of aesthetics means the beauty
is judged by the reason for which something is considered beautiful. The act of
reasoning the nature of beauty requires application of concepts and understanding
of rational principles.
Poetry as a more refined form of various genres of literature must have some
aesthetic appeal. But when we talk about Dalit poetry, is it appropriate to look
for an aesthetic appeal that is found in the traditional or conventional notion of
beauty?As we have read in the earliersection, Dalit literature rejectsthe traditional
and conventional aesthetics, and one would fail to appreciate Dalit literature if
one is stuck with the age old yardstick. Here comes the role of sensitivity and an understanding that a literature born out of anger and humiliation is bound to be
loud and aggressive. In most Dalit poetry, the tone and language is direct,
unfiltered and hard hitting. Limbale says‘pain orsuffering isthe basis of aesthetics
of Dalit literature. Will readers be distressed or angered or will they be pleased
by reading the pain and revolt expressed in Dalit literature? It is a literature that
is intended to make readers restless or angry’. (Limbale, 2018)
As we have read earlier, Dalit poetry deals with anger and pain, the everyday
assault on the basic rights of a section of people and such poetry becomes much
more than art, it becomes political. Dalit poetry challengesthe form of dominance
prevalent in a caste-ridden society and it exposes what this dominance does to
people.
We have to remember that the ideology of BR Ambedkar and Jyotirao Phule
inspired Dalit poetry. Thus, in order to understand and appreciate such poetry,
one needs to recognise these sources of inspiration. The second step is to
deconstruct the traditional notion of beauty. As Limbale says ‘the beauty of an
artistic creation liesin its expression of world consciousness or other worldliness’
according to the traditional theory of beauty. Such a statement espousesthe theory
of spirituality. But ‘Dalit literature rejects spiritualism and abstraction, its
aesthetics is materialist rather than spiritualist’. The aesthetics of Dalit poetry is
based on reality and thus the claim that it is materialistic and not spiritual. The
purpose of Dalit literature is to awaken ‘Dalit consciousness’ in the readers; thus
it has to be grounded on lived experiences and reality of the exploited. It is
committed to the upliftment of the downtrodden, it seeks freedom. One may say
what can be more beautiful than freedom?
Limbale says, ‘the three values of life – equality, freedom and solidarity – can be
regarded as constituting the essence of beauty in Dalit literature. The aesthetics
of Dalit literature rest on: first, the artists’ social commitment; second, the lifeaffirming values present in the artistic creation; and third, the ability to raise the
reader’s consciousness of fundamental values like equality, freedom, justice and
fraternity. (Limbale, 2018)
Activity 2
Why would it not be right to judge the aesthetics of Dalit writing by traditional
notions of the term?
2.2.3 Dalit Women Writers
It is also important to have an understanding of the contribution of women writers
to Dalit literature. So far we have understood the prejudices against the Dalits
and their grief and agony reflected in the literature. One might also begin to
think of the position of women, specially Dalit women, in such a social standing
where women suffer more than their male counterparts in society. Thus, Dalit
women are marginalised on many levels and their suffering is multifold. In their
writings we can see what it means to be a Dalit woman. Their entry into the
literature and literary field was quite late as education was denied to them. Only
from the 1970s onward can we see the first generation of Dalit women writers
who were the direct followers of BR Ambedkar. From this beginning to
contemporary times, women writers have traversed a long journey. Their writing
not only talks about the social inequality but gender biasesin a patriarchalsociety.
Eleanor Zelliot has emphasized the importance of women writersin Dalit literature
who have been contributing to the momentum of Dalit literature that started
from Ambedkar. Some of the Dalit women writers are Shantabai Kamble, Baby
Kamble, Urmila Pawar, Aruna Gogulamanda, Meena Kandasamy among many
more.
Excerpt from Apologies For Living On – Poem by Meena Kandasamy
i ran away in the darkness
nothing beaconed me more than the
prospect-of-solitude-and-the-caress-of-a-million-stars
i ran into the arms of the ravishing night
nothing pulled me back: not even the memories
of-love-i-had-once-known-&-stolen-kisses-savoured-for-so-long.
i ran until terror stopped my tracks
for, trembling i turned and saw that the moon was
another-immodest-ogler-and-lecherous-stalker.
Activity 3
What do you think is the theme of the poem?
2.3 FM SHINDE: ‘HABIT’
F M Shinde is a very prominent Marathi poet with 24 collections of poems. His
first book, Juloos, was a proclamation of the birth of a writer who empathized
with the agony of the underprivileged. His other books include Fakira che
Abhanga and Aai ani ittar Kavita. His contribution to Marathi literature has
been recognised by the three State Government Awards conferred on him. Shinde
is adept not just in poetry but also in prose and his book Dilli se Dilli is a complex
political satire. Shinde is also the Chairman of the Theatre Censor Board,
Government of Maharashtra. He taught Marathi in Deogiri College in Aurangabad
for several years.
Habit
Once you are used to it
you never afterwards
feel anything;
your blood nevermore
congeals
nor flows
for wet mud has been slapped all
over your bones.
Once you are used to it
even the sorrow
that visits you
sometimes, in dreams,
melts away, embarrassed.
Habit isn’t used to breaking out
in feelings.
2.3.1 Reading the Poem
(translated from Marathi by Priya Adarkar)
Once you are used to it/you never afterwards/feel anything :
The poet says if you get used to something, you do not feel anything afterwards.
The Dalits who have got used to oppression and subjugation stopped feeling
anger/humiliation after the prolonged suffering.
your blood nevermore/congeals/nor flows :
congeal: solidify . The blood in the body solidifies, it stops flowing. The lines
signify how a person is rendered lifeless metaphorically, where his blood stops
flowing in his body, making him unable to feel hurt, anger, pain etc.
for wet mud has been slapped all/over your bones:
Comparison with the process of making clay/mud statues. Once you are habituated
to suffering and subjugation, you stop feeling any other emotion; you become
lifeless like a clay/mud statue.
Once you are used to it/even the sorrow/that visits you/sometimes, in dreams,melts
away, embarrassed. :
The lines reflect on how one is not free to feel even sorrow. The Dalits have
become so passive after years of suffering that they cannot even feel sorrow.
Habit isn’t used to breaking out/in feeling.:
Once you are used to something, when it becomes a habit, it is very difficult to
break away from it. One becomes inert and passive without any protest or
resistance.
2.3.2 Interpretation
F M Shinde seems to focus on the passivity of the suppressed Dalits in this
poem. As the title says, it becomes a ‘habit’ to suffer, not feel anything – pain or
anger – as the oppressed are rendered lifeless like mud/clay statues. The caste
hierarchy of Hinduism has made the one belonging to the lowest strata, the
untouchables – the Dalit – suffer and tolerate injustice and discrimination for
ages. The poet points at and condemns this system of suffering that has made the
Dalits habitual to it and foregrounds how they suffer without any protest or
resistance. The poem indirectly serves as a provocation to rebel against the
perpetrators.
The poem is written in very simple, unembellished language yet the emotions
expressed are strong and intense.The tone is not of directrebellion but it condemns
the agency which perpetuates injustice and discrimination on the basis of caste.
As we have read in section 2.1, the Introduction to this unit, Dalit poetry deals
with the suffering and pain of the exploited. The poem ‘Habit’ exhibits that pain
which has settled in the mind of the oppressed over a long period of time. The
poem exposes the helplessness of the situation and the state of helplessness acts
22 as a catalyst for a rebellion and revolt that is much needed. The poem seems to be saying that one should not get habituated to inhuman living conditions and
one should get out and seek freedom.
Imagery
Habit: when one becomes used to something, it tends to become a habit. If one is
habituated then one tends to see things as normal even when they are not. By
using the imagery of ‘habit’ the poet delves into the suffering and exploitation
which, according to the poet, have become a habit for the Dalits. After ages of
subjugation and oppression, the Dalits may have considered suffering as normalcy
and they suffer without any protest or resistance.
Mud/clay statue: the poet uses the imagery of a mud/clay statue to delineate the
lifeless and dehumanised condition of the Dalits. The poetsaysthat one habituated
to humiliation and suffering becomes passive without any voice of protest. The
blood stops flowing and one becomes a mud/clay statue.
Activity 4
Comment on the significance of the imagery in the poem.
2.4 N T RAJKUMAR: ‘UNTITLED POEM’
Rajkumar is one of the more popular Dalit poets and has been published in both
mainstream Tamil literary publications as well as Dalit publications. The poems
of N. T. Rajkumar are articulate protests against the caste and class oppression
that Dalit men and women have been experiencing for ages. His choice ofsubject
in the poems in which he details the ancient injustices done to Dalit women and
draws connectionsto the present was, by his own admission, deliberate, personal,
and ultimately political. He belongs to the Kanniya caste of people traditionally
associated with magic and exorcism within rural Tamil culture and his earliest
memories are of searching for herbs in the forest, and of walking behind his
father, carrying the materials needed for ceremonies. He delights in his intimate
knowledge of the ways Dalit women, who have all died violently, have been
made into deities. ‘Our gods are jungle gods,’ Rajkumar argues. In the Tamil
poems of N. T. Rajkumar, the references to the regional folk religion require not
simply an understanding of the various names of the mother goddesses he lists
but an easy sense of comfort within the folk culture described.
Dancing kobra eyes
twist into the body
striking at a corner
of the soul
asleep, sticking one’s tongue out
on those full-moon nights
Drunk with the saliva
sucked from the dripping mouth,
my poisonous poetry
scattered like
fragrant flowers.
Frightened
to smell them alone
you bring to your aid
those soaring birds of prey.
Denying Shiva this time,
standing on the power of the
god of anger,
I tease the kites.
Ask them, are you well?
You fly away,
disappear in the distance
like a dot.
I cannot touch
the shadow of your wing.
I will be born
again and again.
As a devil,
a ghost,
as Kali,
and Isaki.
As the vengeful furies
I will terrorize you and follow you-
(translated from Tamil by Anushiya Sivanarayanan)
Activity 5
Make a note of the images used in the poem. What do you think they mean?
2.4.1 Reading the Poem
1) Dancing kobra eyes / Twist into the body / striking at a corner /of the soul /
asleep, sticking one’s tongue out / on those full-moon nights
Agitation of the oppressed, the oppressed identifies with the Kobra and its
need to strike. The soul is no longer asleep, but has woken up and is ready
for revenge.
2) Drunk with the saliva / sucked from the dripping mouth, my poisonous
poetry / scattered like
/ fragrant flowers, / Frightened / to smell them alone / you bring to your aid
/those soaring birds of prey.
Continuing with the imagery of ‘kobra’, the poet says that his poetry has
taken the poison from the dripping mouth of the ‘kobra’ and it is scattered
like fragrant flowers. The oppressors are afraid to smell these flowers and
enlist the help of ‘soaring birds of prey’. The poet seems to indicate the
surge of Dalit poetry and criticism of it by the oppressors due to fear.
3) Denying Shiva this time / Standing on the power of the / god of anger, / I
24 tease the kites. /
Ask them, are you well? / You fly away, / Disappear in the distance / like a
dot
Denying mainstream and religious narratives, the poet invokes the name of
god Shiva who is an embodiment of anger. The poet uses the symbol of the
kite to signify the freedom of the oppressor. The oppressed cannot even
touch the shadow of the kite which is flying freely in the sky. The poet says
the kite is flying away not only because it is free but because it is afraid of
the revenge of the oppressed.
4) I cannot touch / the shadow of your wing / I will be born / again and again /
As a devil, / a ghost, as Kali, and Isaki./ As the vengeful furies / I will
terrorize you and follow you –
The poetsays that he will not give up his fight. He will seek revenge against
oppression in other forms even after his death.
2.4.2 Discussion
The poem is a strong voice of protest and rebellion against the exploitation of
the Dalits by the caste Hindus. In the first unit, you read about using “literature
as a weapon” by the Dalit Panther, so here is an example of that. This poem can
be seen as a weapon to fight the oppression faced by Dalits. It becomes an
expression of anger and resulting desire to exact revenge for the suffering. This
poem is not subdued in tone but loud and direct, asserting the vengeful soul for
all the pain and suffering it has gone through. This voice becomes representative
of not only an individual but the condition of all Dalits.
We have read in the previous unit that Dalit literature is collective in aspect.
There is no individual Dalit literature for the individual experience becomes the
representation of a collective experience. The suffering and pain is a reflection
of many years of oppressed generations. In this poem we see this suffering and
pain giving way to anger and frustration, making it a poem of rebellion and
revolution. The poet calls his poem ‘poisonous poetry’that will take revenge for
the oppressions and exploitations that they have suffered for years.
Imagery
Animal Imagery
The poet uses the image of a cobra to delineate the anger and frustration of the
oppressed. The cobra has a desire to strike its victims with its poisonous fangs –
likewise N.T. Rajkumar likens the soul of the oppressed Dalits to the agitation of
the cobra wishing to strike and destroy the oppressors with ‘poisonous poetry’.
The ‘poisonous poetry’ will serve as a way of revenge for the ages of oppression
in terms of social, individual, and even literary traditions.
The poet also uses the imagery of ‘birds of prey’ like the eagle, kite, vulture, for
the oppressors. The oppressor, frightened by the power of the protest by the
oppressed might call for more aid (i.e. more oppressors). So they would come in
the form of birds of prey. Remember the connection between both – the cobra
and bird of prey. They are eternal enemies where the bird of prey may even have
an upper hand in terms of a fight. But the poet seems to be saying that the cobra
will no more fear the birds of prey.
Gods
The poet mentions certain gods in this poem. Shiva, Kali, Isaki, as well as the
devil and the ghost. Both Shiva and Kali are known for their power of destruction.
We have to remember the association of the ‘cobra’ with god Shiva as well. The
poet dissociatesthe ‘cobra’ from Shiva and usesit as a medium of protest whereas
‘Denying Shiva’ might signify his ‘denial of mainstream cultural and religious
narratives’. He also uses god Isaki (not part of the Hindu pantheon) and local
deities to bring in the marginalized narratives. (See glossary for more details).
Isaki : The Genesis of Isaki is described in the following lines by NT Rajkumar:
…Lusting after women and gold
he married the dancer with lies of love
then stoned her to death
amid the thorns
of the cactus field
You are my witnesses, she cried
to the cacti as she died.
The dark-blue goddess of the cactus fields
Demands blood-filled rice
transmogrifies into the midnight
goddess Isaki.
(Excerpt from untitled poem translated from Tamil by Anushiya Sivanarayanan)
Kite
The poet uses the symbol of the kite to signify the freedom of the oppressor. The
oppressed cannot even touch the shadow of the kite which is flying freely in the
sky. The poet says the kite is flying away not only because it is free but because
it is afraid of the revenge of the oppressed.
Activity 6
Examine the tone of the poem
2.5 LET US SUM UP
In this unit, we have read and understood various aspects of Dalit poetry, its
ideology, commitment, and purpose. We have also read and examined the
sensitivity required in understanding the aesthetics of Dalit poetry. We have read
and studied different poems by FM Shinde and NTRajkumarin English translation
and examined the various themes, perspectives, and the tone that make up Dalit
poetry.
2.6 AIDS TO ACTIVITIES
Activity 1: Since it describes the experiences of an entire community and not
that of an individual alone, Dalit writing is to be seen as the articulation of
collective expression.
Activity 2: Dalit writing is concerned with felt experience that is full of pain,
humiliation and suffering that is expressed frankly and graphically. Applying
the traditional standards of aesthetics and beauty would not serve the purpose.
Activity 3: The poet expresses her desire for freedom and ends with the realisation
of what living in a patriarchal society means.
Activity 4: The imagery used in the poem (habit, clay statue) exposes the
helplessness, pain, suffering, grief, and humiliation of the Dalits and the need to
break out of their passivity..
Activity 5: NT Rajkumar uses the image of the cobra to delineate the anger and
frustration of the oppressed. The cobra has a desire to strike its victims with its
poisonous fangs. Likewise N.T. Rajkumar compares the soul of the oppressed
Dalits to the agitation of the cobra desperate to strike and destroy the oppressors
with the ‘poisonous poetry’. The poet also uses the image of ‘birds of prey’ like
the eagle, kite, vultures, for the oppressors.
Activity 6: This poem is not subdued in tone but loud, direct and aggressive,
asserting the vengeful soul for all the pain and suffering it had gone through.
2.7 UNIT END QUESTIONS
1) Examine the tone and language of the poem ‘Habit’.
2) Analyse the significance of the title of the poem. Why does the poet call it
‘habit’?
3) What do you find in common with the two poems discussed in this unit?
4) The two poems were written in different languages. What does their theme
and treatment say about the Dalit experience?
2.8 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING
1) Ambedkar, BR. 2003. Ambedkar: Autobiographical Notes. Introduction by
Ravikumar. Pondicherry: Navayana
2) Anand, Mulkraj and Zelliot, Eleanor, (eds). 1992. An Anthology of Dalit
Literature (Poems). New Delhi: Gyan Publishing House, pp. 1-6, 18-19.
3) Anushiya Sivanarayanan. Translating Tamil Dalit Poetry. World Literature
Today May–August 2004, pp 56-9.
4) Bama. 2000. Karukku. Translated by Lakshmi Holmstron. Chennai:
Macmillan
5) Dangle,Arjun, (ed). 1992. Poisoned Bread: Translationsfrom Marathi Dalit
Literature. Hyderabad: Orient Longman
6) Eagleton, Terry. How to Read a Poem, Blackwell Publishing, 2007, pp 1-8
7) Frost, Robert. Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening, https://
www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/42891/stopping-by-woods-on-a-snowyevening
8) Ilaiah, Kancha. 1996. Why I am not a Hindu: A Sudra Critique of Hindutva
Philosophy, Culture and Political Economy. Calcutta: Samya.
9) Limbale, Sharankumar. 2018. Towards an Aesthetic of Dalit Literature:
History Controversies and Considerations. Translated by Alok Mukherjee.
New Delhi: Orient Blackswan Private Limited.
10) Omvedt, Gail. 1994. Dalits and the Democratic Revolution: Dr. Ambedkar
and the Dalit Movement in Colonial India. New Delhi: Sage Publications.
11) ———— [1995] 1996. Dalit Visions. Tracks for the Times/8. Hyderabad:
Orient Longman.
12) Shelley,James, “The Concept of the Aesthetic”, The Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy (Winter 2017 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)
13) Vyam, Durgabai and Vyam, Subhash. 2011. Bhimayana: Experiences of
Untouchability, New Delhi: Navayana.
14) Zelliot, Eleanor. 2000. ‘Sant Sahitya and Dalit Movements.’ In Meera
Kosambi, ed., Intersections: Socio-cultural Trends in Maharashtra.
Hyderabad: Orient Longman
UNIT 3 LITERATURE FROM NORTH EAST INDIA
Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Excerpt from Introduction to The Oxford Anthology of Writings from the
North East India by Tilottoma Misra
3.3 Discussion
3.4 Let Us Sum Up
3.5 Glossary
3.6 Aids to Activities
3.7 Unit end Questions
3.8 References and Suggested Reading
3.0 OBJECTIVES
Literature from North East India is a less explored area in terms of studies of
Indian literature as the North East region is geographically as well as culturally
and linguistically different from the so-called mainstream/mainland in India. There
is a tendency to exoticise and at the same time homogenise the people and culture
and by large the literature of the place. This unit will briefly introduce various
trends and genre of literature of the sister states in the North East. By the end of
the unit you should be able to gain a better understanding of the literature of the
place.
Words given in bold throughout this unit are explained in the Glossary at the
end.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
When we think of the North Eastern part of India it remains a place less explored
and distinct from the rest of India. From this lack of knowledge one tends to
homogenise the sister states as a single entity with perhaps Assam as the
representative of all the states. We will discuss in this unit how every state, every
ethnicity has its own distinct history as well as culturally marked identity which
is reflected in the literature of the place. We will also see amidst the differences,
the shared commonality of the people as each of them bore the influx of different
cultures and events (colonialism, Hinduism, western education, Christianity)
which shape the literature of the place.
The Northeast comprises 8 states- Arunachal Pradesh,Assam, Manipur, Mizoram,
Meghalaya, Nagaland, Sikkim, and Tripura also commonly known as the eight
sisters (after the addition of Sikkim). Some of the well known writers from the
North East are Temsula Ao, Mamang Dai, Nabakanta Barua, Robin S Ngangom,
Nilamani Phukan, Thangjam Ibopishak Singh, Kynpham Singh Nongkynri, Mona
Zote, Chandrakanta Mura Singh, to name a few. Birendranath Datta explains the
different communities of people in the North East India as follows,
‘From the cultural point of view, the population of this region could be divided
into three categories:
Those tribal communities living in the rather distant hills more or less isolated
and free from the impact of Sanskrit or other organised cultures (except in the
case of tribes with Buddhistic connections).
Those tribal groups, both in the hills and the plains, who have retained their
tribal group identity but who have been acculturated in various degrees as a
result of living in close proximity or contact with the non tribal Sanskritized
majority or through the impact of Buddhism or Christianity or Islam.
Those societies which are more or less fully Sanskritized where the population
is wholly (asin the case ofthe Meiteis) orsubstantially (asin the case ofAssamese)
made up of erstwhile Indo Mongoloid stocks. Local Muslims of this region,
although not Sanskritized from the religious point of view, are culturally a part
of this milieu.’ (Misra 2011)
Activity 1
Why would it be wrong to club all the North Eaststatesinto one homogenised
group?
3.2 EXCERPTS FROM INTRODUCTION TO THE OXFORD ANTHOLOGY OF WRITINGS FROM
THE NORTH EAST INDIA BY TILOTTOMA MISRA
An intense sense of awareness of the cultural loss and recovery that came with
the negotiation with ‘other’ cultures is a recurrent feature of the literatures of
the seven north-eastern states. Each small community or linguistic group has
responded through its oral or written communication to the encounters with the
majoritarian cultures from either mainland India or from outside the borders
ofthe country, in its own distinctive manner.The main waves of cultural invasion
that have wroughtsignificant changesin the literary world of the region originated
in the Bhakti Movement, followed by the various Reformist dispensations of
the nineteenth century, colonialism and the Christian missionary activities that
accompanies it, and the new culture of development that has become a part of
the global culture. Each of these encounters resulted in different forms of
resistance as well as appropriations. The clash of cultures has often led to the
loss of traditional forms and the adoption of new cultural icons that threatened
the existing ones. While there have been attempts at reviewing and critiquing
one’s own society and culture in the light of the new ideas that have invaded the
region from time to time, yet whenever the xenophobic fear of the ‘outsider’ has
seized a community, a tendency to retreat into the cocoon of cultural isolation
has been quite evident. In Assam, Manipur, and Tripura, this process of cultural
intermixing began long before the advent of colonialism. Shaiva, Shakta, and
Vaishnava forms of Hinduism together with Buddhism and Islam spread their
distinctive influences in the region, while the Tai-Ahoms who entered Assam
from the east and ruled the country for almost 600 years till the advent of the
British in 1826, made immense contribution towards the creation of a syncretic
30 culture in the region. It is significant that the literature of the pre-colonial period in all these three kingdoms was deeply rooted in the wonderfully mixed cultural
life of their respective societies. Colonialism, however, superimposed a
Eurocentric concept of modernity derived from the enlightenment on the
literature of the region, thereby creating a rupture between the past and the
present. The Christian missionaries took the lead in ushering in a print culture by
establishing printing presses and bringing out textbooks, books on grammar, and
Christian literature and journals in the local languages. The standardization of
the Assamese language that took place as a result of this encounter, however, led
to the marginalization of the other spoken dialects of the language, thus creating
a distance between the oral and written. This interference with what a recent
historian has termed the ‘robustly polyglot character’ of the pre-colonial
administration of Assam, helped the colonial administrators to cope with the
problem of managing the bewildering and mind-boggling heterogeneity of
speech which they encountered in the colonial province of Assam which
constitutes most of what is called the ‘North-East’ today. The initial attempt of
the British to impose a standardized form of Bengali to serve as the vernacular
of Assam, met with stiff resistance from the Assamese literati of the time who
received unexpected support from theAmerican Baptist missionaries. The creation
of a standardized print language in Assam was, therefore, the result of a joint
effort by the missionaries and the Assamese intellectuals schooled in the
metropolitan culture of Calcutta in the nineteenth century. Thislanguage, which
emerged as the medium for the new literary creations of the nineteenth century,
contained elementsfrom many existing speech practices of the variousindigenous
communities of the region as well as from Persian, Hindi, Bengali, and other
languages of the neighbouring communities with which the pre-colonial rulers
of Assam used to carry on political and commercial intercourse. The modern
Assamese language has, therefore, been termed as a ‘philosopher’s paradise’
because of the heterogeneous elements mobilized within its structure.
The Assamese language in its various oral forms has also served as the lingua
franca amongst many of the hill people in the neighbouring states of Arunachal
Pradesh and Nagaland. But these oral forms of the language have remained as
pidgin languages and are, therefore, termed as ‘non-language’ even by the
speakers who use these forms of the language for communicating with people
from neighbouring tribes. It may be noted that before the advent of identity politics
amongst the various ethnic communities in the region whose mother tongue is
not Assamese, the writers from the different communities used the Assamese
language as the medium for creative writing. This resulted in the language
acquiring distinctive characteristics because of the infusion of elements peculiar
to the culture of the different indigenous communities…
… Of the three generations of writers of the post-Independence period included
here, a significantly large number of the younger writers are writing in English.
A variety of reasons may be cited for this phenomenon. Many of them have had
the privilege of being educated in English-medium schools and they are more
capable of handling that language rather than their mother tongues. This new
band of writers writing in English is bound to grow in number because most of
the hill-states of the region have adopted English as the official language, thus
ensuring that it would be the first language of the new generation of literates and
it would be used to the best advantage both in the professional as well as in the
academic arena. While whether the English language would be able to replace
the regional languages in creative writing maybe a contested question, it is a fact thatsome ofthe best writingsfrom the North-East have been produced in acquired
languages, including English. Moreover, given the small sizes of the linguistic
groups to which many of the writers belong, it is understandable that the aspiring
writers should choose to write in a language through which they can reach out to
a wider reader base. Indeed, many of the writers writing in English have reaped
the benefits of acquiring a worldwide audience through national and international
forums. Reflecting on this phenomenon, Nigel Jenkins, a Welsh scholar who has
edited a collection of Khasi poetry in English and Welsh, has expressed the hope
that the Khasis would go back to their own language after the ‘purging of the
clutter’ that is under way at present. He says: ‘It is a painful fact of literary life
for certain young writers that although Khasi is their everyday medium, they are
not sufficiently confident in the language to make poems in it. This real or
imagined incapacity is largely the fault of an education system which obliges
secondary school pupilsto abandon their native tongue and matriculate in English.
In contrast, a completely different view has been expressed by Salman Rushdie
who finds no reason to be apologetic about the choice of the English language
by Indian and diasporic writers. Commenting on the status of the Indian writers
‘working in English’, he says: ‘English is the most powerful medium of
communication in the world; should we not then rejoice at these artists’ mastery
of it, and at their growing influence? To criticize writers for their success at
“breaking out” is no more parochialism (and parochialism is perhaps the main
vice of the vernacular literatures).’…
… The lack of first-rate translations of Indian literature in vernacular languages
has been mentioned by most editors who have compiled anthologies of Indian
writings. Though the efforts of Sahitya Akademi and some other institutions in
collecting and publishing Indian writings in translation is laudable, yet many
areas have still remained untouched. Despite the claims of some scholar that ‘in
India we keep translating every moment of our active life’ and that much of the
pre-colonial literature in India was founded on translations of the epics and the
puranas, it is sad that some of the best writings in the Indian languages can be
read only by the readers who belong to the same linguistic community as that of
the author.
Most of the communities from north-east India can pride themselves for
possessing a vibrant storytelling tradition. The culture of the ‘face-to-face
communities’ which is distinguishable from the abstract nature of social
relationships in the ‘modern’ world, is a distinguishing feature of the oral and it
has continued asthe dominant influence on the literary creationsfrom the region.
After the introduction of print culture into the region during the colonial times,
collecting, re-telling, and printing the folklore of the different communities became
an important part of the colonial ethnographic agenda of mapping the region
for more effective administrative control over the bewildering variety of races
than the British encountered here…
… The sense of being denied fair representation in the great Indian civilizational
discourse or even in the nationalist discourse, has deeply affected the emerging
literati of many of the regions of north-east India in the most-Independence era…
…The ‘seven sisters’ of the North-East which had only marginal historical links
with each other in the pre-colonial times, had their doors open towards SouthEast Asia, eastern Bengal, Bhutan, and Tibet – regions with which they shared
boundaries and lively commercial and cultural contacts. It was only after the
32 partition of the sub-continent that the region became totally landlocked with almost all the doors closed except for a narrow corridor that kept it linked with
India. This geographical isolation has led to erasures and marginalization on
multiple levels, the effect of which is clearly discernible in the writings from the
region…
Activity 2
What do you understand by cultural invasion?
3.3 DISCUSSION
About the author : Tilottama Misra was born in 1947 in Shillong, Meghalaya
where she had her early education. She did her graduation from Calcutta
University, completed Masters from Delhi University and Ph.D. from Guwahati
University. She taught English literature in Indraprastha College Delhi University
and English Department Dibrugarh University from where she retired as a
professor in 2007. Her published books include Literature and Society in Assam:
A Study of Assamese Renaissance 1826-1926, Guwahati, 1987, two novels
Swarnalatha 1991 and Louhitya Sindhu 1997 and Ram Navami Natak – The Story
of Ram and Navami, A Translation of Kunavaram Bharvad Ram Navami Natak,
New Delhi, OUP, 2007. She was awarded the Ishan Puraskar by Bharatiya Bhasha
Parishad in 1995 for her novel Swarnalatha. She has also edited two volumes of
the Oxford Anthology of Writings from North East India, Poetry and Essays, and
Fiction.
When we look at the literature of North East India, one common aspect that is
evident in them is the awareness of the people of the region of the “cultural loss
and recovery” that happened with the negotiation with “other” cultures. By other
cultures, we mean the different cultures from mainland India or outside India
which came in contact with the region over a long period of time. The small
communities and the linguistic groups that comprise the North East region have
responded to the encounter of cultures in their own ways whether in written or in
oral narratives. Some of the main encounters of other cultures with the native
culture of the region are the Bhakti Movement, Hinduism, Christianity,
Colonialism, Euro-centric concepts etc.. These interactions over the years have
been met with both resistance and appropriations. Nevertheless, these clashes
led to the loss or threat to existing cultures as well as emergence of new cultures
by adopting or adapting with the aforementioned encounters. Thus, one may
find in the region the tendency to retreat into a cultural isolation whenever there
is a threat from the outsiders which is not surprising considering the cultural
onslaught that the place has gone through over the years.
In the states ofAssam, Manipur, and Tripura the intermixing of culture happened
earlier than the other states with the advent of Hinduism, Islam and in some
parts, Buddhism. Much later, the wave of colonialism came to the region and
with it came Western education and Christianity. In the pre-colonial period in the
three kingdoms one can see the mingling of indigenous culture with the foreign
cultures, which impacted the literature of the region. It may also be noted here
that these three kingdoms are the only communities in the North East India with
their own script while the rest of the region used Roman script. With colonialism,
the region was introduced to the western concept of modernity. The Christian
missionary introduced print culture by bringing out textbooks,Christian literature, and journalsin local languages. In Assam, this encounter led to the standardization
of Assamese language. This process led to the “marginalisation” of other oral
dialects of the language. The standardized language that came out has elements
of speech of other indigenous communities as well as Hindi, Persian, Bengali, in
short, giving it a heterogeneous structure. Various dialects of oral Assamese
language can also be seen in the neighbouring states like Arunachal Pradesh and
Nagaland
Activity 3
What wasthe effect of the print culture brought in by Christian missionaries?
English as a Medium of Creative Expression
We can see that many young writers from the North East India used English as a
medium of their creative expression, specially in the post colonial era. Reasons
behind this phenomenon can be perhaps adoption of the English language as the
official language in many regions of this part of the country as well as the result
of preference for English medium schools. Another reason for choosing English
as a medium can be to reach out to a wider audience or readers since the North
East, as we have discussed, is made up of small yet different linguistic groups.
English will also give their writings a wider exposure through national and
international readership. One must also keep in mind the debate whether a person
can produce “creative work” in an acquired language. This debate has been an
ongoing topic not only in relation to North East literature but in literature in
other Indian languages too.
Another important issue that one must keep in mind is that of translation. In
India (being a multilingual country) translation plays a very important part on
the literary front. Though efforts are made by organisations like the Sahitya
Akademi, there are even now works of literature that can be read only by people
from the same linguistic group as the writer.
Oral tradition
The North East region of India has a rich oral tradition. Even with states with
written scriptures as mentioned earlier, orality is no lessimportant than the written
narrative. In fact, one finds the intermixing of orality with a written form of the
language in many of the communities. Oral tradition means having a system of
communication where knowledge, ideas, art, cultural and traditional values are
received,stored and shared or transmitted orally from one generation to the next.
The transmission is through spoken words – that is through speech or songs.
Thus, it may be in the form of folktales, ballads, prose, poetry etc. and the North
East region has a vibrant story telling tradition. One can say that the literature of
the region is influenced by this still-alive tradition of storytelling.
However, after the introduction of print culture during the colonial time and the
resulting marginalisation of the oral dialects of some communities, there has
been a gap in the past and present identity. There has been an increased effort to
reclaim the original identity by re-telling, recreating the past through the oral
tradition in literature. Misra says, ‘collecting and printing the oral and written
literature of one’s own community also became a part of the nationalist agenda
of identity assertion. People whose history and civilization had been pushed to
34 the margins as not conforming to the norms of the Eurocentric concept of modernity, took up the task of recreating the past and reinventing tradition so as
to represent the present as a stage in the continuous process of marching from
the past to the future. Amongst many indigenous communities of Africa and
America too there has been a resurgence of conscious attempts to adopt elements
from their own oral tradition in order to create a modern literature of their own
which would resist the colonial project of denial of history or literature to the
colonized. But Temsula Ao whose own writings display a sensitive blending of
the oral and the written claimsthat the ‘new literature rich with indigenousflavour’
that is being created by the modern storytellers and poets from the North East
does not seem to have a political agenda like the postcolonial literature that is
emerging in Africa and amongst the native Americans in recent times.’ (Misra
2011)
Activity 3
What could have made young writers from North East decide to choose
English as a medium of creative expression?
Literature and Politics
One cannot deny the fact that some parts of the North East region are plagued by
social, political and insurgency problems and ethnic clashes. These problems
not only hinder the development of the region but destabilize the daily lives of
the common man. Tension between the government and various mushrooming
insurgency groups in neighbouring states and neighbouring countries, problem
of immigrants, issues of representation of the North East (political or otherwise)
in the nationalist discourse etc are some of the burning issues in the North East
region. Thus, the literature of the post-independence era by North East writers
tends to be political. Sanjay Hazarika says ‘India’s North East is a misshapen
strip of land, linked to the rest of the country by a narrow corridor just twenty
kilometres at its slimmest which is referred to as chicken’s neck. The region has
been the battleground for generations of sub-national identity confronting
insensitive nation-states and their bureaucracies as well as of internecine strife…
it is a battle that continues, of ideas and arms, new concepts and old traditions, of
power, bitterness and compassion.’ (Misra 2011)
Violence, terror, blood, death etc are some common themes/imagery found in
the literature of the region. Another aspect of North East literature is seeking
identity.As we have discussed in the earliersection of this unit, various encounters
with Hinduism, Islam,Christianity, colonialism etc have redefined the small ethnic
groupsthrough adaptation and appropriation over the years. Thus, in the literature
of various sub-groups of the North East, one may see a reclaiming of the past
and a questioning of the present identity.
The North East region has recently featured in many agendas of the political as
well as economic strategies of the country. Being geographically and hence
physically isolated, the cultural, linguistic as well as racial differences from the
rest of India have led to multiple layers of marginalization of the region. Perhaps,
this is one common thing that all the different communities of North East share
and it is very clearly seen as well in the creative expression of the writers of that
region.
3.4 LET US SUM UP
In this unit, we have had a glimpse into North East India and seen how its culture
and literature have been shaped and moulded by various historical, political,
cultural, economical, as well as religious interventions. Like the political map of
the North East, it is a difficult task to draw the literary map of the region. Each
creative expression from the sister states tells a distinctive story of the people
and the place. We need to research further in order to understand properly, the
literature of the North East.
3.5 GLOSSARY
Acquired language : the second language other than the native tongue.
Adoption : the action or fact of choosing to take up, follow, or
use something
Affinities : a spontaneous or natural liking or sympathy for
someone or something
Apologetic : regretful
Appropriations : the action of taking something for one’s own use,
typically without the owner’s permission.
Bewildering : confusing or perplexing
Bhakti Movement : The Bhakti Movement was a Hindu religious
movement of the medieval period that believed that
Enlightenment was obtainable by everyone. The
movement advocated that a personal expression of
devotion to God is the way to become one with Him.
Mira, Kabir, Mahadeviyaka etc. were the saint poets
of Bhakti Movement.
Bilingual/Multilingual: speaking two languages/speaking multiple languages
Chauvinistic : feeling or displaying aggressive or exaggerated
patriotism
Cocoon : envelop orsurround in a protective or comforting way
Connotation : an idea or feeling that a word invokes in addition to
its literal or primary meaning
Critiquing : to review or discuss critically
Cultural invasion : The invasion of a culture by outsiders, who may try
to help or change the indigenous culture. The
Cambridge dictionary defines cultural imperialism as
one “culture of a large and powerful country,
organization, etc. having a great influence on another
less powerful country.”
Diaspora writer : a writer who has moved away geographically from
his/her original birthplace.
Discourse : written or spoken communication or debate
Dispensations : exemption from a rule or usual requirement
Distinctive : characteristic of a person, things etc. which
distinguishes it from the others.
Emotive : arousing or able to arouse Intense feeling
Enlightenment : a European intellectual movement of the late 17th
and 18th centuries emphasizing reason and
individualism rather than tradition
Epics and the puranas: long poems, typically one derived from ancient oral
tradition, narrating the deeds and adventures of heroic
or legendary figures or the history of a nation eg,
Ramayan and Mahabharat
Erasures : removal
Ethnographic : The branch of anthropology that deals with the
description ofspecific human cultures, using methods
such as close observation and interviews
Eurocentric concept : Reflecting a tendency to interpret the world in terms
of European or Anglo-American values and
experiences
Heterogeneity : the quality or state of being diverse in character or
content
Icon : a person or thing regarded as a representative symbol
or as worthy of worship
Immense : extremely large or great, especially in scale or degree
Indigenous : native, originating naturally from a particular place
Infusion : The introduction of a new element or quality into
something
Intense : extreme, strong feeling
Interference : the action of interfering or the process of being
interfered with.
Intermixing : to mix together, become mixed together
Landlocked : almost or entirely surrounded by land; having no
coastline or seaport
Laudable : deserving praise
Lingua Franca : A language that is adopted as a common language
between speakers whose native languages are
different
Linguistic Group : group oflanguagesrelated by descentfrom a common
ancestor
Literati : well-educated people who are interested in literature
Majoritarian cultures: majoritarian is contituting a majority. Cultures
pertaining to themajority group would bemajoritarian
culture.
Marginalisation : The process whereby something orsomeone is pushed
to the edge of a group and accorded lesserimportance.
Metropolitan : characteristics of the metropolis, in terms of culture ,
sophistication etc.
Mobilized : make something to move
Negotiation : discussion to reach to an agreement
Obliges : make (someone)legally or morally bound to an action
or course of action
Parochialism : a limited or narrow outlook, especially focused on a
local area; narrow-mindedness
Peculiar : particular, special
Phenomenon : a fact or situation that is observed to exist or happen,
especially one whose cause or explanation is in
question
Philologist’s paradise : a good place for a person who studies literature and
language. Where enough material is available.
Pidgin : A grammatically simplified form of a language, used
for communication between people not sharing a
common language. Pidgins have a limited vocabulary,
some elements of which are taken from local
languages, and are not native languages, but arise out
of language contact between speakers of other
languages.
Recurrent : repeated
Reformist : a person who advocates gradual reform rather than
abolition or revolution.
Reviewing : careful examination of something, formulation of a
judgment, and statement of the judgement
Robustly polyglot : perhaps having the character of a large number of
character languages
Rupture : disturb, break
Shaiva, Shakta, : different school of Hindu form of worship of gods
Vaishnava and goddesses, Vishnu, Shiva, Shakti, Durga, Kali,
Parvati etc.
Standardization : the process of making something conform to a
standard
Superimposed : placed or laid over something else, typically so that
both things are still evident
Syncretic : the combination of differentforms of belief or practice
Tai Ahoms : Tai-Ahom are a Tai people of Assam, Arunachal, and
some in Kachin State who are the descendants of
either the Tai people who reached the Brahmaputra
valley in 1228, or the local people who joined them
over the course of history
Vernacular : the language or dialectspoken by the ordinary people
38
in a particular country or region
Vibrant : full of energy and enthusiasm
Wrought : shaped
Xenophobic : dislike of or prejudice against people from other
countries
3.6 AIDS TO ACTIVITIES
Activity 1: Cultural invasion is incursion into a culture by outsiders, who may
try to help or change the indigenous culture. The Cambridge Dictionary defines
cultural imperialism as one “culture of a large and powerful country, organization,
etc. having a great influence on another less powerful country.” Some of the
instances of Cultural Invasion in the North East region are the Bhakti Movement,
Reformist movements of the 19th century, colonialism, and Christian missionaries
etc.
Activity 2: Print culture was brought into the North East region by Christian
missionariesthrough the publication of textbooksrelated to theBible. They started
to publish religious material in the local languages that led to a Standardization
of specific dialects. The process of Standardization led to the Marginalisation of
other oral dialects of the Indigenous communities. One example that can be cited
is the Standardization of the Assamese language.
Activity 3: Writers from the North East region perhaps choose English as their
medium of creative expression because of the universal appeal of the language
as English would give them a wider readership nationally and internationally.
Also, English is the most acceptable official language in the North East region.
English also works as a bridge between the variouslinguistic groups of the North
East region.
3.7 UNIT END QUESTIONS
1) Name a cultural invasion that happened in the North East region according
to your understanding of the text. In what ways has this invasion brought
about changes?
2) Why are the oral forms of Assamese spoken in the neighbouring states of
Assam considered as non language?
3) What is the importance of translation?
4) What is oral tradition? Why does the writer say that the North East has a
vibrant storytelling tradition?
5) Do you think that literature can be political?Write your answer with reference
to the essay that we have discussed in this unit.
6) Do you agree with the writer when she says ‘the sense of being denied for
representation in the great Indian civilizational discourse or even the
nationalist discourse has deeply affected the emerging literati of many of
the regions of North East India in the post independence era’? Give reasons
for your answer.
7) Write a brief note on your understanding of literature from the North East
region.
3.8 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS
1) Baruah, Sanjib (ed). Beyond Counter-insurgency: Breaking the Impasse in
North East India, New Delhi, Oxford University Press, 2000
2) Bhattacharjee, Sukalpa and Rajesh Dev (eds). Ethno-narratives: Identity
and Experience in North East India, New Delhi, Anshah Publishing House,
2006
3) Chandra, N. D. R. and Nigamananda Das, Ecology, Myth and Mystery –
Contemporary Poetry in English from North East India, New Delhi,
Sarup&Sons, 2007
4) Datta, Birendranath, “North East India and its Socio-Cultural Milieu” Misra,
Tilottoma, Oxford Anthology of Writings from North East India, Poetry and
Essays. New Delhi, OUP, 2011
5) Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory
6) Ed. Aggarwal, S Kailash, Dynamics of Identity and Intergroup Relations in
North East India, Shimla, Indian Institute of Advanced Studies, 1999
7) Gill, Preeti (ed). The Peripheral Center – Voices from India’s North East,
New Delhi, Zubaan, 2010
8) Misra, Tillotama (ed). The Oxford Anthology of Writings from North East
India: Poetry and Essays, New Delhi, Oxford University Press, 2011
9) Misra, Udayon “Peasant Consciousness as Reflected in the Oral Literature
of Assam: A Study of Two Assamese Ballads.” Misra, Tilottoma, Oxford
Anthology of Writingsfrom North East India, Poetry and Essays. New Delhi,
OUP, 2011
10) Ngangom, S. Robin, Nongkinryh Kynpham (eds). Dancing Earth, An
Anthology of Poetry from North East India, New Delhi, Penguin Publication,
2009
11) Oxford English Dictionary
12) Singh, Ch. Manihar, A History of Manipuri Literature, New Delhi, Sahitya
Akademi, 2003
13) Verghese, B.G. India’s North-East Resurgent: Ethnicity, Insurgency,
Governance, Development, New Delhi, Konark Publishers Pvt. Ltd, 2004
UNIT 4 LITERATURE FROM NORTH EAST INDIA –POETRY
Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 Poetry from North East India
4.2 Text – ‘Hijan Hirao’
4.2.1 Reading the Poem
4.2.2 Interpretation
4.3 Text – ‘Colours of Truth’
4.3.1 Reading the Poem
4.3.2 Interpretation
4.4 Let Us Sum up
4.5 Aids to Activities
4.6 Unit End Questions
4.7 References and Suggested Reading
4.0 OBJECTIVES
In this unit we will try to have a glimpse of the plethora of poetry from the North
East. The two poems we are going to discuss belong to different eras. The first
poem ‘Hijan Hirao’ is from the time when colonialism, Hinduism, Christianity
etc. had not reached Manipur (and largely the entire NE region). In this poem we
can take a peek at the time and lifestyle of that period reflected through literature
in the oral tradition. The second poem is from Meghalaya by a contemporary
poet and it will give us a voice from today’s world speaking about what has
transpired from the time of the coexistence of men and nature to urbanisation,
modernisation, political and economic growth that the region has seen and the
ensuing problems faced by the ‘sisters’. By the end of the unit, you will have a
fair understanding of a few aspects of poetry from the North East of India.
4.1 INTRODUCTION
We have read about the literature of North East India in the previous unit and by
now we have understood that it is very difficult to categorise North East literature
into one general group. The same goes for the poetry of the region as well. Other
than being written by people from a geographically identified space (the eight
sisters) the commonality and homogeneity of the region or regions tends to be a
myth. We know that the North East comprises a number of different ethnicities,
histories, cultures and politics. Thus, we can only try to map the poetry of the
region by gaining insight into the history of each community. Having said this,
ac few commonalities can still be seen in terms of treatment of nature, rootedness,
orality and identity as the region has some shared history. The popularity of
English as the medium of expression is a unique feature in North East literature.
The possible reasons for this choice have been discussed briefly in the previous
unit.
Activity 1
Why isit difficult to put the literature ofthe entireNorthEast under a common
fold?
4.1.1 Poetry from North East India
Now let’s look at some of the aspects of poetry from the sister states of North
East India.
We will begin withAssamese poetry asAssamese literature more orless dominates
and influences the rest of the North East region. Assamese poetry can be
understood by way of the different phases of evolution it went through over the
course of history. We will try to look at the poetry of each sister state in various
phases to have a better understanding. The pre-independence period Assamese
poetry was marked by romantic trends and mysticism. Patriotism was yet another
aspect like it was in the rest of Indian poetry of the pre independence era. The
post independence phase is dominated by poets Nilmani Phookan, Nabakanta
Barua and HirenBhattacharya.The shiftfrom romantic idealism to a more realistic
socially and politically conscious stance is a remarkable change we see here.
The influence ofAngloAmerican andmodernist poetry with the lingering presence
of the elements of Indian classicsis another aspect of post independence Assamese
literature. The poets explore the themes of human existence in the modern world
post World War II conditions, violence, conflicts of urban life etc. The language
and style are modern, abstract, symbolic and laden with folk and the myth. Some
of the younger poets are Nilim Kumar, Jiban Narah, Anupama Basumatari,
Anubhav Tulasi, Aruni Kashyap etc.
The journey of Manipuri poetry is also somewhat similar to that of Assamese
poetry and we can try to understand it by looking at the faces of Manipuri literature
through the ages. Manipur is a Hindu dominated state, Hindus being the majority
of the many communitiesthat reside here. Before the advent of Hinduism around
the 18th century, the poetry of the region was marked by the beliefs and ways of
life of the ancient pre-Hindu faith. Heroism, close affinity with nature, myths
and folk elements mainly make up the poetry of this phase. After the advent of
Hinduism, the poetry can be seen influenced culturally as well as linguistically
with elements of Hindu epics like the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. The
next phase came with western education and philosophy that accompanied the
British colonisers at the end of the 19th century. The first modernist wave in the
field of poetry can be seen during this period, specially in the first half of the
20th century. The poetry is marked by patriotism and romantic idealism very
similar to the Assamese poetry of that time. Lamabam Kamal, Hijam Irabot,
Khwairakpam Chaoba,Ashangbam Minaketan etc are notable poets of the period.
The post independence Manipuri poetry embraced a realistic approach to life,
society, and politics. Discarding romantic idealism, poets would speak more about
the disillusionment of the post-independence political predicament of the modern
man, corruption, violence etc. Elangbam Nilakanta, Thangjam Ibopishak Singh,
W Ranjit, Yumlembam Ibomcha Singh etc. captured the consciousness of the
time in their poetry. Surrealistic post-modern style and technique can be found
in the form and the theme of the poetry of this period. Another theme is the clash
of the insurgents with the state/central government and how the people are caught
in the crossfire of the ensuing violence Some of the contemporary Manipuri
poets are Saratchand Thiyam, RK Bhubonsana, Arambam Ongbi Memchoubi
42 Devi, Gambhini Devi, Robin S Ngangom etc.
Writing came much later in the case of Naga literature. Since Nagas have a
strong oral tradition, literature was to be found in the oral form. With the coming
of Christian missionaries and subsequent use of and adoption of the Roman script,
the first book was published in 1880. The initial written literature mainly revolves
around translation of the Bible and moralistic stories. The post independence
literature is marked by displacement, conflict and confusion over the transition
from a rural to an urban way of life, violence stemming from armed insurgency,
disillusionment etc. One very important element in the poetry is that of the
storytelling tradition that comes from the oral culture of the place. Some of the
poets are Temsula Ao, Easterine Italy, Monalisa Changkija etc.
Mizo literature – like Naga literature – is heavily influenced by the oral tradition.
The poetry is marked by the presence of the musicality of the rich Mizo folk
songs. The Mizos have also adopted the Roman script from the Christian
missionaries. Written Mizo literature is new as compared to the other states, but
the modern literature specially poetry, explores the anguish of the people over
urbanization, trauma of violence from militancy, distortion of the traditional ways
of life etc. Notable poets are Mona Zote, Lalrinmawii Khiangte, Cherrie L
Chhangte etc.
The Khasis from Meghalaya also have a rich oral tradition and absence of a
written script. The British missionariesintroduced the Roman script and it became
the medium for written Khasi literature. The only written literature of the 19th
century revolved around the Bible and Christianity but later poets started a trend
in Khasi poetry to explore and capture the rich folk traditions, myths and legends
of the place. Some of the important ports are Soso Tham, Jeeban Roy, Desmond
Kharmawphlang, Esther Syiem, Kynpham Sing Nongkynrih etc.
Activity 2
What do you understand by oral tradition? Put down your thoughts and
compare them to what is said later in this unit.
Tripura is one of the three states from the North East India which has its own
written script. You may have noticed that many states in the North East do not
have written scripts and they have adopted the Roman script. Assam, Manipur
(meitei), and Tripura are the only states with written scripts. Literature from
Tripura is heavily influenced by the neighbouring Bengali literature. In fact,
Bengali literature dominated the region before ‘kokborok’ the indigenouslanguage
became official after much struggle. Many modern contemporary poets are trying
to reclaim that indigenous identity by exploring myths, legends, and the oral
tradition by using the kokboroh language. Important poets from Tripura are
Chandrakanta Mura Singh, Pijush Raut, Bijoy Kumar Debbarma, Jogmaya
Chakma etc.
The writers from Arunachal Pradesh also explore myth and folklore to strike an
equilibrium between the past and the wave of modernization, constant destruction
of forests and virgin lands in the face of urbanization. Most writers express the
predicament of the people who have lost touch with their ancient roots and are
confronted with the new world of existence in the urban spaces. The medium of
expression is mainly English. The poet Mamang Dai has explored roots, traditions
to issues of women to name a few themes in her poetry.
It is indeed a taxing endeavour to try to grasp an understanding of the literature
ofsuch a diverse region. In the nextsection we will read two poemsfrom different
time periods as well as community and linguistic groups.
4.2 HIJAN HIRAO
At dead of night
The mother who begot the tree
And the mother of all giant trees,
The queen of the hill-range
And the mistress of the gorges
Took the tall and graceful tree
To her bosom and wailed:
“O my son,tall and big,
While yet an infant, a sapling
Didn’t I tell you
To be an ordinary tree?
…
The king’s men have found you out
And bought your life with gold and silver.
…
At daybreak, hacked at the trunk
You will be found lying prostrate.
No longer will you respond
To your mother’s call
Nor a likeness of you
Shall be found,when I survey
The whole hillside.
Who shall now relieve my grief?”
(Extract of poem translated from original Manipuri by Ch Manihar Singh)
4.2.1 Reading the poem
The poem says that in the dead of the night, that is midnight, the spirit mother of
the forests and hills, who is considered as the queen and the mistress of the hills
and the gorges comes and clasps the ill-fated tree to her bosom. The tallest tree
has been chosen by the kingsman for making a grand boat and is to be cut down
in the morning. The mother spirit wails and reprimands the tree, reminding it of
how she had told it – when it was a mere sapling – to grow into just an ordinary
tree. But because it did not heed her advice and grew so tall and strong, it attracted
the fancy of the king and its life had now been bought with gold and silver. The
mother then imagines what will transpire in the morning – the tree would be
hacked down and only the trunk would remain. He would not answer to the call
of the mother any more. The mother then says that there won’t be any one as
great as the slain son and laments, wondering how she will get relief from the
pain of separating from her son.
Activity 3
Think about how has nature been portrayed in the poem ‘Hijan Hirao’ and
jot down your observations.
4.2.2 Interpretation
The poem is an extract from a longer poem called ‘Hijan Hirao’. Hijan Hirao is
a variation of Hichal Hilao which can be explained as hi – boat, chal – construct,
lao – to shout. In essence, Hichal Hilao can be interpreted as a song sung during
the construction of a boat. The long narrative poem is considered as one of the
earliest poems of Manipur. It is associated with the local festival of Manipur call
Lai Haraoba and the poem is meant to be sung as a part of rituals during the
festival.
It tells the story of an incident that is believed to have happened in 400-600 AD
during the reign of king Hongnem Luwang Ningthou Punshiba of the Luwang
dynasty. The story goes like this: one day when the king was taking a stroll by
the river Singtha, he saw small insects crossing the river using twigs and dry
weeds. This gave him the idea of building a mighty boat. He ordered his artisans
to find the biggest and the tallest tree of all from the forest and cut it down to
make the grand boat. When the king’s men found the tallest tree by the hillside,
they performed the customary rituals before felling the tree. As it was believed
that the trees and the forest have spirits, the woodcutters put their axes on the
tree overnight and prayed for permission to fell it. The part of the poem that we
have here talks of the night before the tree was cut. In the night, the mother spirit
of the forest and the hills comes to mourn the loss of her child. The poem here is
the cry of the mother for the child who is to leave her.
As we have discussed earlier, the poem is part of a ritual and is meant to be sung.
However, as we only have a translated version of the song, the musicality and
the rhythm of the words are lost. The translated poem reads like a narrative and
the simple language used by the translator makes it an easy read.
The poem explores the universal human emotion of mother and child. The
suffering and misery of the mother at the impending doom of her beloved son
and her wail and cry of pain is captured in this part of the poem. We can also see
human greed in the poem as exhibited by the king’s artisans who wanted the
tallest tree to make the boat. The mother spirit of the forest had warned her son,
the tree, when he was a mere sapling not to grow too tall as it could attract envy.
What she feared came to pass as the tree was earmarked to be cut down because
of its great height.
The poem also explores and reflects on the close proximity of humans and nature
in the North Eastern part of India,specially Manipur. The artisans perform certain
rituals before the felling of the tree. The ritual involves invoking the spirit of the
tree and putting an axe on the trunk of the chosen tree overnight. The priest
performing the ritual would then ask the tree for permission to cut it and the tree
spirit can give a hint by moving the axe during the night if it doesn’t want to be
cut down. This ritual speak of the belief and acceptance that trees have spirits
and there is respect for such beings with souls in order to lead a harmonious
existence.
Oral Tradition
We have already discussed oral tradition in relation to the North East literature
in the previous unit. Oral tradition means having a system of communication
where knowledge, ideas, art, cultural and traditional values are received, stored
and shared or transmitted orally from one generation to the next. The transmission
is through spoken words that is, speech or songs.
J.A. Cuddon says that “poetry and stories belonging to such a tradition are
composed orally, or made up by the poet or the storyteller during a performance
according to preconceived formulae and themes…Oral composition usually relies
on an established framework of storytelling whereby the stories are wellknown
in their basic outlines and passed down through generations of singers or
bards…Oral poetry played an important role in the social life of a people or
community, expressing its collective worldview, its system of religion, its moral
values, its history, and its dreams for the future. Many literate cultures have
looked to oral traditions in order to consolidate their identity as a distinct people.
Numerous post colonial authors have drawn on oral traditions to develop a mode
of writing that is not wholly dependent on the culture of the colonizer.”
4.3 THE COLOURS OF TRUTH
A siesta phone call
oozes friendly warnings.
Insurgents have grown
incredibly urbane, these days.
The question is, must we subterfuge
to shield a pedagogics stooge?
I close my eyes
turn towards the sun.
The colour I see is
disgorging blood.
I close my eyes
shade them with my palms.
The colour I see is
life-erasing black.
These are the colours of destiny
of immutable truth
and the colours also
with which warring pawns
are daily decorating our towns.
– Kynpham Singh Nongkynrih
4.3.1 Reading the Poem
A siesta phone call/ oozes friendly warning : perhaps a phone call made to warn
the poet about the (mis)deeds of the insurgents that are mentioned in the later
part of the poem. Siesta is nap time in the afternoon, a time when one takes rest.
Here, it might imply that there is no resting time at all.
Insurgents have grown/ incredibly urbane, these days./ The question is, must we
subterfuge/ to shield a pedagogic’s stooge? : The poet says the insurgents have
become urbane that is courteous. Maybe they would call before making certain
(sometimes financial) demands. The poet raises a question in the second part.
Must we trick ourselves to shield or defend a well-taught puppet who is acting
on someone else’s bidding? The poet might be raising the question of a common
man’s perspective of the situation of a society structured by people with power.
Subterfuge-trickery, deceit to obtain something.
Pedagogic-related to teaching methods. (In this context, “well-taught” would be
a better phrase).
Stooge-one who allows oneself to be used for another’s profit.
I close my eyes/turn towards the sun./ The colour I see is/disgorging blood./I
close my eyes/shade them with my palms./the colour I see is/life-erasing black.:
The poet mentions two colours – red, the colour of blood when he turns towards
the sun with closed eyes and black when his palm blocks out the sun. Red, with
its allusion to blood, signifies violence and black signifies death.
These are the colours of destiny/ of immutable truth / and the colours also/ with
which warring pawns /are daily decorating our towns. : The poet says that both
the colours are the colours of destiny and immutable truth. While the red of
blood signifieslife, black signifies death. Life and death are the colours of destiny
as well as truth. But the poet ponders over how these two colours are pawns in
the hands of the warring parties who paint the town with these colours everyday.
In the last lines, the poet expresses how the common folk have to deal with life
and death daily because of the clashes created by those who have power.
Activity 4
How do the colours red and black heighten the impact of the poem ‘The
Colours of Truth’?
4.3.2 Interpretation
About the poet
Kynpham Singh Nongkynrih, born on 4th April 1964 in Cherrapunji, Meghalaya,
is a poet, short story writer and translator of the Khasi tribe. He teaches English
literature in North Eastern Hill University (Nehu). He has been conferred the
Fellowship of Outstanding Artists 2000 by the Government of India. He has won
several awards for his contribution to literature – namely, North East award in
2004, Veer Shankar Shah Raghunath Shah National Award etc. His works have
been published widely and he has 12 publications in Khasi and 7 in English
besides translation and edited volumes. He writes in both English and Khasi and
his works have been translated into Hindi and Bengali as well as into Welsh and
Swedish.
Kynpham Singh Nongkynrih’s poems explore the existence of people in the
shadow of the menace of uneasy political as well as social situations. His poems
thus have a political edge to them. His style of writing draws from a number of
literary and cultural references and the mode of writing ranges from political to
lyrical. He believes in poetry that is relevant and addresses the time and the
place, yet his poetry is universal in its treatment of themes.
Insurgency:
Like other states of Northeast India, Meghalaya also has its share of insurgency
issues. Meghalaya was part of Assam till its separation as a different state in
1971. Different factors from integration to a distinct Indian state, failure of a
national consciousness due to ethnic (Khasi, Garo etc) issues led to the rise of
various separatist movements. Recently, the state along with the rest of the north
east states which are beset by insurgency problems have seen a decrease in the
rate of insurgency related violence and clashes. But the area is not unfamiliar
with the chaos and confusion arising from the parallel government (state and
non-state) which is common to most of the sister states.
The poem ‘The Colours of Truth’ captures the trauma of the people and place
burdened by the disturbance of the militancy movements. The poem talks about
the politics of the powerful and their pawnsthat are like puppets doing the bidding
of the masters. They live a violent life and they also become agents ofthat violence
that perpetually plagues the normal day to day life of the ordinary people. The
common folk who are witnessto the chaos and violence are caught in the confusion
and are unable to lead a normal life without any disturbances. The question is:
whose side should the common man take in the war that the place/town has
become so familiar with? It can be said that most North Eastern states inflicted
with insurgency have ordinary people who may have sympathized with the
militants’ cause at some point of time. But the constant upheaval of the routines
of daily life, the question of ideologies and fraction among groups have led to a
certain degree of distrust and disillusionment. The poem seems to address this
very sensitive issue. Nongkynrih believes that poetry should be conscious of
issues and address the situation, condition of its time. The poem is a very good
example of his writing with a political edge. The poem reveals the predicament
of the people habituated to violence and death and their coming to terms with/
negotiating such an existence. The inevitable question of trust within the
framework of such an existence is at the core of this poem.
The poem is originally written in English, in free verse with six stanzas of alternate
two and four lines except for the last stanza with five lines. It does not follow
any rhyming scheme or meter yet it is full of imagery that is appropriate to the
theme of the poem. When one looks at the title of the poem – the colours of truth,
one may start to wonder whether truth should have any colour or whether it
should be transparent. If truth has a colour, should it be considered truth any
longer – is the question. Now, in the poem, the poet mentions two colours, one is
the colour of blood and the other is black. The colours – red that is the colour of
blood and black – are used by a number of poets from Northeast India. Red,
signifying violence and bloodshed, is to be seen in plenty in the area. The poet
says, “I close my eyes turn towards the sun the colour I see is disgorging blood”.
In the next few lines the colour that the poet sees is black, “I close my eyes shade
them with my palms the colour it is life erasing black”. So black becomes the
colour of death which erases life. The poet calls these two colours the colours of destiny, of immutable truth. If we look at red or blood, it also signifies life.
Blood is the ultimate life source or the fluid that carries life. Thus, life and death
is the colour of destiny. Yet these are the colours that the warring pawns are
decorating the town with. It signifies how the agents of power (state or nonstate) have control over these two colours and the common folk are rendered
mute witness to the daily violence and chaos.
Activity 5
How appropriate is the imagery used in the poem?
4.4 LET US SUM UP
In this unit we have discussed in detail two poems from different time periods
and have tried to understand the difference in the execution of the poems as well
as the style of poetry. We have also looked at the various forms and themes as
well as the undercurrent of politics and violence in the poetry of the sister states
of North East India. We have tried to locate the commonality as well as the
uniquenessthat identifiesthe sisterstates as a whole yet, at the same time marking
each as a distinct entity.
4.5 AIDS TO ACTIVITIES
Activity 1:It is difficult to put the literature of the entire North East under a
common fold because the North East is not a homogeneous place asit is generally
misconceived. Each state has a history of its own, its growth as a community and
the different problems that it faces is unique to it.
Activity 2: Oral tradition means having a system of communication where
knowledge, ideas, art, cultural and traditional values are received, stored and
shared or transmitted orally from one generation to the next. The transmission is
through spoken words that is speech or songs.
Activity 3:The poem ‘Hijan Hirao’ explores and reflects the close proximity of
humans and nature in the North East part of India specially Manipur. The artisans
perform certain rituals before the felling of the tree.
Activity 4: Through the use of these colours, the issues of life, violence and
death are brought out without the necessity of very graphic descriptions. Both
colours are striking and intense and the reader can picture a canvas painted with
just these colours. By bringing in these stark and primary colours, the poet is
able to heighten the impact of his words.
Activity 5: The imagery is appropriate because it evokes both life and death.
The violence and uncertainty that dogs these societies is reflected in red – the
blood that nourishes as well as the blood that is spilled – and in the ultimate
erasure – the blotting out of life in darkness, symbolised by black.
4.6 UNIT END QUESTIONS
1) What are the common strains in the literature of the North East?
2) Discuss the importance of oral tradition in the literature of the North East.
3) Write a brief note on the poetry of North East India.
4) Comment on ‘Hijan Hirao’ as a poem that reflects environmental concerns.
5) What is the central theme of ‘The Colours of Truth?’
6) Why do you think that the English language is a common medium of creative
expression in the North East region of India?
4.7 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING
1) Aggarwal, S Kailash (ed). Dynamics of Identity and Intergroup Relations in
North East India, Shimla, Indian Institute of Advanced Studies, 1999.
2) Baruah, Sanjib (ed). Beyond Counter-insurgency: Breaking the Impasse in
North East India, New Delhi, Oxford University Press, 2000.
3) Bhattacharjee, Sukalpa and Rajesh Dev (eds). Ethno-narratives: Identity
and Experience in North East India, New Delhi, Anshah Publishing House,
2006.
4) Chandra, N. D. R. and Nigamananda Das, Ecology, Myth and Mystery –
Contemporary Poetry in English from North East India, New Delhi,
Sarup&Sons, 2007.
5) Datta, Birendranath, “North East India and its Socio-Cultural Milieu” Misra,
Tilottoma, Oxford Anthology of Writings from North East India, Poetry and
Essays. New Delhi, OUP, 2011.
6) Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory
7) Gill, Preeti (ed). The Peripheral Center – Voices from India’s North East,
New Delhi, Zubaan, 2010.
8) Misra, Tillotama (ed). The Oxford Anthology of Writings from North East
India: Poetry and Essays, New Delhi, Oxford University Press, 2011.
9) Nag Sajal. “Resistance Verse” Ed. Bhattacharjee, Sukalpa and Rajesh Dev,
Ethno-narratives: Identity and Experience in North East India, New Delhi,
Anshah Publishing House, 2006.
10) Ngangom, Robin S, “Poetry in the Time of Terror” Chandra,N D R
Multicultural Literature in India: A Critical Perception, New Delhi, Sarup
Book Publishers Pvt. Ltd, 2009.
11) Ngangom, S. Robin, Nongkinryh Kynpham (eds). Dancing Earth, An
Anthology of Poetry from North East India, New Delhi, Penguin Publication,
2009.
12) Singh, Ch. Manihar, A History of Manipuri Literature, New Delhi, Sahitya
Akademi, 2003.
13) Syiem Esther “Social Identity and Liminal Character of the Folk: A study in
the Khasi Context” Misra, Tilottoma, Oxford Anthology of Writings from
North East India, Poetry and Essays. New Delhi, OUP, 2011.
14) Verghese, B.G. India’s North-East Resurgent: Ethnicity, Insurgency,
Governance, Development, New Delhi, Konark Publishers Pvt. Ltd, 2004.
Block-4 Womenspeak
UNIT 1
AWoman’s Retelling of the Rama-Tale: The Chandrabati
Ramayana
UNIT 2
Lakshmi Kannan and Indira Sant: Poems
UNIT 3
Naseem Shafaie: Poems
UNIT 4
‘Sapavimochanam’ (‘The Redemption’) by
Pudhumaipithan
BLOCK 4 WOMENSPEAK
This Block will take up writings which present a woman’s point of view. Through
their writing and the re telling of familiar stories, women strive to put forward
their unique perspective in the context of a patriarchal world that upholds rules
which are applied to and judge men and women differently. Whether it is being
denied the right to education, the freedom to choose what they want to be and
how or the moralstandardsthat they are expected to live up to, women frequently
find themselves at a disadvantage when compared to their male counterparts.
The illustrative writings and the informed analysis with discussions will help
learners become aware of the circumstances in which women have existed in a
male-dominated society over the ages and how they respond to it. A woman’s
point of view need not always be articulated by a woman. And to bring home
this point, we have included in this Block, an extract from a story written by a
man.
UNIT 1 A WOMAN’S RETELLING OF THE
RAMA-TALE: THE CHANDRABATI
RAMAYANA
Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Chandrabati, the Writer
1.3 Excerpts from Essay by Nabaneeta Deb Sen
1.4 Analysis
1.5 Narrative Techniques
1.6 Insights
1.7 Let Us Sum Up
1.8 Aids to Activities
1.9 Glossary
1.10 Unit End Questions
1.11 References and Suggested Reading
1.0 OBJECTIVES
This unit will help you to understand the Chandrabati Ramayana on the basis of
our reading of the essay by Nabaneeta Deb Sen. You will discover that the
Ramayana written by Valmiki and Tulsidas, which is generally considered the
standard version of Ramayana, has been written and re-interpreted by different
writers down the ages. As such, the story line and the characters are greatly
altered. Chandrabati Ramayana will help you appreciate the Ramayana from
Sita’s perspective. It is an imaginative and unique adaptation of Ramayana where
you will see that when women write, their style and focus is different from a
man’s, and also how personal relationships are more important for a woman
compared to war, politics and the public sphere. Reading some excerpts from the
essay by Nabaneeta Deb Sen on the Chandrabati Ramayana will enable you to
understand how patriarchy and patriarchal structures eventually take over
women’s writings because of which the original structure of the Chandrabati
Ramayana has been greatly altered.
Words in bold are explained in the Glossary
1.1 INTRODUCTION
It is difficult to separate religion from everyday life. Do you agree? All of us
follow an unwritten code of conduct that has been passed down to us from one
generation to another. Still, every community and each person has a different
and distinctive approach to religion, and feels differently about their gods and
goddesses. This is more so in a country like India which has a pluralistic society
and social structures that are absolutely dissimilar. You can think of some very
basic beliefs and religious practices/rituals which are alternatives to mainstream approaches. The Ramlila is a socio-religious event in India where people from
various walks of life and religious communities come together to enact and reinterpret incidents from Ramayana. It is through such enactments and gatherings
that religion continuously evolves and avoids becoming stagnant. In India, we
venerate and criticize religiousicons whom we considersacred as well asintimate
members of our family. Here “religion is not something separate and apart from
ordinary life. It is life… lived in the fuller awareness of its human quality and
spiritual significance.”
Activity 1
Does gender affect our reading and interpretation of texts?
1.2 CHANDRABATI, THE WRITER
Most of us are not familiar with Chandrabati and so, a good starting point would
be getting to know her. Chandrabati holds the honour of being the first ever
woman to re-write the Ramayana. She was born to Dij-Banshidas Bhattacharya
and Shulochona Das Bhattacharya in 1550 in the village of Patuyari, on the
banks of the Fulesshori River in Kishoreganj, East Bengal. Her father was a
prolific writer who composed the Manasa’s ballads.
Chandrabati wrote during an age when no one could even begin to imagine that
a woman could write and render religious texts in her own way and on her own
initiative. It wasindeed revolutionary. Chandrabati’s life was quite extraordinary.
What brought her to writing was disillusionment in love: she immersed herself
in the written word which helped her survive her grief. She fell in love with her
childhood friend, Jayananda whom she dreamt of marrying. However,Jayananda
married someone else and this broke Chandrabati’s heart. She decided to never
marry, and devoted her life to serving Lord Shiva on the advice of her father. She
re-wrote the Ramayana from Sita’s point of view. However, Chandrabati’s
Ramayana could not be completed. In a dramatic twist of events, Jayananda
realised hisfolly and returned to Chandrabati who refused to accept him. Rejected
and repentant,Jayananda committed suicide by jumping into the River Fulesshori.
Chandrabati also ended her life by drowning in the same river. At the time of her
death in 1600, she was fifty years old. We are indebted to this lady who faced
odds in personal life and still gave us a rich legacy that continues to inspire
many.
It is rather sad that such an intellectual and progressive woman like Chandrabati
should be written off as a ballad writer, and her contribution as an outstanding
epic writer should not be recognised by critics. In patriarchy, critics found it
difficult to accommodate a woman-oriented adaptation of the Ramayana, which
was more secular than martial and jingoistic. Till recent times, Chandrabati
Ramayana remained a ‘silenced text’. It isratherstimulating to re-visit thisignored
text and see for ourselves how a woman thought that Sita felt, and how the social
and emotional world would be if a woman became its central subject.
Activity 2
Why do you think the Chandrabati Ramayana is referred to as a ‘silenced
text’?
1.3 EXCERPTS FROM ESSAY ‘A WOMAN’S RETELLING OF THE RAMA-TALE:
NARRATIVE STRATEGIES EMPLOYED IN THE CHANDRABATI RAMAYANA’ BY
NABANEETA DEB SEN
The author of this essay, Nabaneeta Deb Sen, writer, critic and academic, was a
Professor at the Department of Comparative Literature in Jadavpur University.
She has many books to her credit in a variety of genres: short stories, essays,
travelogues, poetry, fiction, children’s literature and verse-plays. Even her most
scholarly essays are remarkable for their charming and humorous prose. She is
one of the most popular authors in Bengal today. Among several honours, she
has received the Padma Shree (2000), the Sahitya Akademi Award, the Kabir
Samman, the Rabindra Puraskar and the Sanskriti Award. She is a Fellow of the
Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Vice President of the Indian National
Comparative Literature Association. She was the Radhakrishnan Memorial
Lecturer of Oxford in 1996-7.
Excerpt:
…(All) scholars agree that what is found as Chandrabati Ramayana is an
incomplete text, an incomplete Ramayana. All the collectors, the editors and the
historians of Bengal literature support the view that the whole of the Rama-tale
is not to be found in it. It is only a fragment.
…Chandrabati Ramayana… isthe Rama-story retold by a Bengali Hindu village
woman, a woman who had known suffering, a woman who had the courage to
choose the lonely intellectual life of a poet, in sixteenth century rural East Bengal.
Sukumar Sen, when he mentions the life of Chandrabati in his history of
literature… says – after telling us about her unrequited love – ‘she remained a
virgin all her life. This is the sum total of the ballad.’ This is not the sum total of
the ballad. The ballad mentions that she wrote the Ramayana and worshipped
Shiva for the rest of her life.
Are we to note this as a silencing tactic? It is no wonder that this text had been
silenced by the urban literate male mediators in the role of literary historians…
In this unusual Ramayana, Rama himself is gently pushed back to a corner where
he is hardly visible except in relation to Sita. The narrative pattern clearly and
unmistakably follows the story line of Sita’s life and the tale as it stands is
unabashedly a Sita-tale under the traditional guise of a Rama-tale. The only
episodes of the Ramayana depicted here are the episodes of Sita’s life, beginning
with the supernatural birth of Sita, going through her tales of woe, ‘Sita’s
Baromasi’(which mentions her childhood, her marriage, her life as an abducted
woman), describing her pregnancy, exile and her entry into mother earth. In a
Ramayana you would expect the ‘janmalila’section to treat the birth of Rama…
The supernatural birth scene is supposed to tell us about Rama’s birth and the
purpose of his appearance on earth to destroy the evil Ravana… ‘According to
rule, Rama’s birth story should come first and Sita should come next.’
Chandrabati breaks the accepted pattern by beginning her epic with Sita’s birth
story… the first six long sections are devoted to describing the complex tale of
conception and birth of Sita. Sita is born out of a sorrow – the blood of tortured
ascetics and the death wish of a neglected Mandodari mingle to create a Sita and
she comes to destroy Ravana and his clan. The evil Ravana, strengthened by the
boon of Brahma, was tyrannizing all three worlds and collected the blood of the
ascetics, in a box as a poison to destroy the immortality of gods… Mandodari
felt neglected and heart broken. So she decided to take the poison that was strong
enough to kill the deathless tribe. She took the poison… Instead of dying she
gives birth. Sita is born in the form of an egg. Soothsayers in Lanka predict that
this egg would produce a dangerous daughter who would cause the total
destruction of the demon dynasty. Hearing that Ravana wants to destroy the
egg… She manages to make him throw the egg into the ocean, protected in a
golden casket. It flows across the Bay of Bengal and a very poor but honest
fisherman, Madhab Jalia finds it. He brings it home to his very poor but honest
wife, Sata, who has nothing to eat, nothing to wear and nothing to complain
about. She performs various auspicious rituals and receivesthe egg reverentially.
Hence, Laksmi, the goddess hiding in the egg as Sita, showers her with riches.
The poor fisherman becomes wealthy.
In the meantime, his wife Sata gets a dream message that Laksmi wants her to
deliver the egg to the wife of King Janak. She immediately follows the divine
instructions. The only reward she wants from the queen is that the daughter
when born, should be named Sita, after her own name Sata… So with the name
of a poor fishwife, Sita was born out of an egg in Chandrabati’s text, not found
by the king while tilling the soil as in the classical legend. King Janaka, in fact,
has no role to play here. It is his wife who takes care of the egg which produces
Sita. This is the supernatural birth of the heroine, to destroy evil. Sita is born to
bring about the total destruction of Ravana and his clan… Ravana desires Sita
without knowing she is Mandodari’s child (she is not Ravana’s child, only
Mandodari’s). The story also reminds us of Krishna and Kansa, and also of the
Prahlad legend… Call it intertextuality if you like.
Chandrabati devotes only two comparatively shorter, later sections to the birth
of Rama, his three brothers and one sister, the evil Kukuya who has the Bengali
(and Sanskrit) term for evil (ku) pronounced twice in her name.
In the next section, Book II, Sita herself is now the narrator. She sits in the inner
apartment of Rama’s palace, talking to her girlfriends, who ask her all kinds of
questions about her personal experiences. Having returned from Lanka, Sita is
now at ease and talks freely about her childhood, her marriage, her life with
Rama as a bride, and in the exile, and her life in Lanka as an abducted woman.
Rama’s achievements – the breaking of Haradhan and the entire epic battle are
only summarily referred to (not described) through Sita’s ‘Baromasi’ (the song
of twelve months, relating the incidents of one’s life to the seasonal changes).
The heroic code is thus gently broken. There are no gory battle scenes, no details
of heroic achievement given at all. Most of the epic actions are referred to through
the conceit of dream, as dream messages.
This section is most interesting because in an epic the epic battle is of central
importance. But in Chandrabati Ramayana, twice mediated through feminine
sensibility, once by Chandrabati’s as the composer, and once by Sita’s as the
narrator, the epic battle loses all its glory and gets only a few lines to itself.
Maximum colour and space are spent on the interludes of Sita and Rama in the
forest…
After her return from Lanka, there are four more important events in Sita’s life:
(1) pregnancy (2) betrayal and exile (3) childbirth and (4) voluntary death or
entry into Mother Earth.All these experiences are described in great detail. Mother
Nature seems to appear in the form of Mother Earth to put an end to the human
injustice that Sita was being subjected to.
The Chandrabati Ramayana most logically ends here with the death of Sita, and
it is here that our third narrative begins. It is our story, yours and mine. The
reader’s story… We could… call it a heroic epic – if heroism is taken to signify
man’s superhuman ability to stand and overcome human suffering. Because this
is what Sita displays here. It is not an epic battle with visible special weapons,
but with weapons of moral values. And this is where we hear the clashing voices
of Chandrabati I and Chandrabati II. Her Sita wins the battle by fighting with the
traditional weapons of value supplied by the dominant ideology of Chandrabati’s
time, whereas Chandrabati herself, as the narrator-composer is challenging the
same values in the very structure of the narrative.
We have here a narrative about a woman, narrated by a woman (by two women,
in fact) meant for female audience. Yes, the text was originally intended for a
female audience as the recurring formula here is ‘shuno skhijana’ (listen
girlfriends), not ‘shuno sabhajana’ (listen, members of the court) nor ‘shunu
sarbajana’ (listen one and all) as the regular formulae go. Hence the producer of
the text is a woman, the product depicts a woman’slife and the intended consumers
are women.
In Book III the narrator changes once again. Chandrabati returns as the narrator
but a male character finds his way in too, Lakshmana. He strongly voices the
general patriarchal values, even… of Rama’ssuperhuman quality once (of which
there are no visible signs in the text – it is in that sense a secular Ramayana).
…In the first edition of the epic… this section is absent. But… in the second
version this portion is found. Clearly, the poem had become a property of the
bards of East Bengal long ago and was sung to a mixed audience… we also find
that the regular form of the earlier address ‘shuno sakhijana’ becomes ‘shuno
sabhajana’ or ‘shuno sarbajana’from time to time. The intended audience remains
female in Sita’s own narrative about Rama where she is privately conversing
with her girlfriends… in her inner chambers.
The patriarchal voice is clearly audible in the last section of the second version,
where Lava, Kush and Hanuman interact heroically and the ascetics Vashistha
and Valmiki appear in their full Brahminical splendour.
Hence, we can read it today as a silenced text of yesterday.
Ramayana is a misnomer for our narrative. It should have been called ‘Sitayana’,
the route of Sita, Sita’s journey. Rama is not at the centre of the narrative…
Chandrabati often intrudes into the text and directly addresses the characters
herself.
The Chandrabati Ramayana does not tell us about the route of Rama, but it tells
us all about the life’sjourney of a woman – a complete biological life-cycle – her
birth, her marriage, her pregnancy, childbirth, maturity and death. It is a woman’s
text, for the selection of episodes, for the highlighting and detailing of intimate
feminine experiences(like the pregnant woman’s craving for chewing burnt clay),
like pregnancy, childbirth (Mandodari’s description), maternal feelings… the
woman’s desolation and desperation at being neglected, worship of local
goddesses… and the performance of religious rituals. Chandrabati even uses
bratakatha-style formulaic language when describing Sita’s ritualistic
performances…
As narrators, Sita and Chandrabati differ in that one is a character, the other is an
outsider…Sita is an idealrepresentation of the dominant ideology but Chandrabati
is a dissenter. She openly questions, challenges and punctures the ideology of
her time in her personal intrusions, and also in herselection of episodes, depth of
detail and silences. But, she does not criticize Sita for acting according to the
dominant ideology.
… In Indian epics the epic battle is between good and evil, and in a patriarchal
system (which produces the epic) both are represented by male characters. In
Chandrabati Ramayana also, there is this war of good and evil – but both are
represented by women, Laksmi and Alaksmi, Sita and Kukuya.
… Chandrabati Ramayana… is what we call a silenced text… a poor literary
work because it was a Ramayana that did notsing of Rama… Today, a re-reading
of the narrative exposes an obvious failure: to recognize Chandrabati Ramayana
as a personal interpretation of the Rama-tale, seen specifically from the wronged
woman’s point of view.
Activity 3
In what way does Chandrabati make her own thoughts and feelings known
in her narrative?
1.4 ANALYSIS
You have had a glimpse into Chandrabati’s personal life and you must be quite
eager now, after reading Nabaneeta Deb Sen’s essay, to know about the text
itself. Some of you who are real enthusiasts could visit the library of the University
of Calcutta where Chandrabati’s manuscript is kept. Just scanning through it
would in itself be really exciting! We will group our analysis of this text under
three heads –
i) Text
ii) Narrative techniques
iii) Insights
Once we have completed our analysis, you will be able to understand the
importance of woman-speak and how a woman approaches and interprets her
life and its problems differently. We have with us a text that deals with and
narrates Sita’s entire life span – her Baromasi (a Hindi term which literally
translates into barah mahina, i.e. twelve months – which represents a life cycle,
each season representing a stage of life) – telling us about her happiness, sorrows
and her eventual tragic death. You will find it interesting to see that war, and
public appearance and affairs, which matter enormously in a male-centric society
are treated very casually here. Even the people who are addressed and the way
they are spoken to is remarkably different from the regular forms of social
intercourse one finds in Valmiki’s Ramayana.
Valmiki’s Ramayana begins with janmalila – an entire section devoted to Rama’s
birth. Chandrabati departs from this tradition to begin her epic by devoting its
firstsix sectionsto describing Sita’s birth. Sita is born as an incarnation of Goddess
Laxmi to fulfil a divine prophecy. She comes into this world to bring Ravana’s
end. She, not Rama, thus becomes the protagonist. In Valmiki, Sita is found
abandoned in the fields by Raja Janak. However, in Chandrabati, Sita is
Mandodari’s offspring and has no father. Chandrabati Ramayana paints for us a
Ravana who is dissolute, tyrannical, and over-ambitious because of Brahma’s
boon.
Activity 4
How does Sita replace Valmiki’s Rama in Chandrabati Ramayana?
Ravana murders sages and collects their blood in a box as poison with which to
end the immortality of the gods. He abducts beautiful women and spends time
with them, completely neglecting his wife, Mandodari. Out of extreme sorrow,
Mandodari drinksthis potent potion to end her life and miseries. But in a dramatic
twist, instead of dying, she gives birth to Sita in the form of an egg. Sita is thus
conceived out of the blood of ascetics who had been brutally murdered and the
agony of a much neglected and suffering Mandodari. When Mandodari gets to
know that Ravana is out to destroy the egg, she puts it into a golden casket and
makes Ravana throw it out of her castle window into the ocean. The egg floats
across the Bay of Bengal. Ravana’s threatening an innocent life seals his
damnation.What happens to the egg? Does it get broken? No. It is found by
Madhab Jalia, a poor and honest fisherman. His religious wife, Sata performs
holy rites and receives the egg worshipfully, which pleases Goddess Lakshmi,
who blesses the couple with wealth and prosperity. Lakshmi visits Sata in a
dream and asks her to deliver the egg to King Janak’s wife. Sata goes to the
Queen and gives her the egg, requesting the Queen to name the child, Sita, as her
namesake. Her wish is granted and the new born is named Sita – a derivative of
Sata. Her conception and birth are as befitting a traditional male hero.
Chandrabati’s Sita’s miraculous and divinely ordained birth without a male
authoritative figure makes her one of the earliest radical feminists.
Activity 5
What is the importance of the character Madhab Jalia in Chandrabati
Ramayana?
Chandrabati devotes only two comparatively shorter, later sections to the birth
of Rama, his three brothers and one sister, the evil Kukuya who has the Bengali
(and Sanskrit) term for evil (ku) pronounced twice in her name. The heroic code
is subtly defied and re-written in Chandrabati Ramayana. Traditionally, epics
are regulated by a heroic code which demands that the central character should
be a man who is virtuous and masculine, and has martial prowess. He should
uphold the dominant patriarchal social code of conduct. Chandrabati speaks up
in her own person to denounce patriarchal ideology: Sita takes the centre stage
with a supernatural birth generally reserved for heroes.
In Book II, we find that Sita hasreturned from her exile and subsequent abduction
by Ravana, and is in her married home. In a flashback sequence, she recalls her
entire life from her childhood to her life during her exile accompanied by her husband, and her loneliness in Lanka. It is very interesting that the thrust of this
book is not on Rama’s heroic exploits but Sita’s emotions. Rama’s achievements
– the breaking of Haradhan and the entire epic battle are mentioned briefly while
the epic actions are referred to through dream sequences. Sita, however, has
much to say about her relationship with Rama. Sita’s pregnancy and her
abandonment, her giving birth to their children, her and death or entry into Mother
Earth to end her experience of injustice are described in detail. We have
descriptions of exclusively feminine experiences like Sita’s yearning to chew
burnt clay during her pregnancy.
Activity 6
How does shifting the focus from Rama to Sita in Chandrabati Ramayana
alter the storyline?
Apparently, the original edition of Chandrabati ends here. However, we have a
second edition which is in all probability an interpolation by male writers. We
have the entry of Lakshmana, a representative patriarchal figure in Book III. He
praises Rama’s heroism on which Chandrabati Ramayana had remained silent
so far. The text gets a patriarchal slant. Male characters take centre stage: we
have the heroism of Lava, Kush and Hanuman; the ascetics Vashistha and Valmiki
appear in their full Brahminical splendour.
1.5 NARRATIVE TECHNIQUES
Chandrabati Ramayana has a narrative sequence in which the speakers change
from book to book, as does the mode of address to its audience and readers. The
narrator of Book I is Chandrabati while the narrator of Book II is Sita herself.
These two books are women-centric – they are written by women and articulated
by women to an audience comprising women. The form of address is
overwhelmingly, ‘shuno skhijana’ (listen girlfriends). Sita’s confidantes are her
close women friends with whom she shares her experiences. Typical womencentric ways, like bratakatha-style language, i.e. narratives of fasting are used
here.
In later editions and in Book III, patriarchal authoritative voices take over. In all
probability, the poem had become a property of the bards of East Bengal long
ago and was sung to a mixed audience. The modes of address change: ‘shuno
skhijana’ is replaced by ‘shuno sabhajana’ (listen, members of the court) and
‘shunu sarbajana’. The tone shifts from intimate and emotional to public and
celebratory.
It is interesting to note that Chandrabati remains critical of the dominant male
ideology. At timesshe directly addressesthe characters and shows her annoyance
at their behaviour which brings sorrow into Sita’s life. However, Chandrabati
does not criticize her heroine, Sita for acting in accordance to the very same
dominant ideology; Sita is celebrated because she follows this ideology
unquestioningly.
1.6 INSIGHTS
Chandrabati Ramayana is undeniably an exciting text which helps readers to
12 relate to the pain of women, and understand that every text has an authoritative
voice against which many dissenting voices rise. These dissenting voices create
alternative text(s) which help maintain an ongoing discourse on ethics and valuesystems. In a society which is patriarchal, it is the man and his supporters who
call the shots. Here, literary works do not provide any space for woman-speak. It
does not surprise us that it was only as recently as the sixteenth century that a
woman-oriented Ramayana was written.
Chandrabati Ramayana is beyond doubt about Sita – her life, her problems and
her personal experiences. Rama is a character in the margins. Chandrabati
Ramayana is a ‘Sitayana’ – telling us about the journey of Sita’s life; to call it
Ramayana is misleading. This Ramayana is a heroic epic with a difference.
Traditionally, heroism translates into masculine valour and a fight between the
forces of good and evil which are generally violent, even virulent. However,
here evil and good are represented by inner conflict, as ethical and moral forces.
There are no visible weapons, and signs of traditional warfare are absent.
Chandrabati Ramayana is of great importance asit provides us with an alternative
woman-centric point of view to understand, analyse and interpret religion. In
this Ramayana we meet an anguished and stricken Sita who suffers despite being
innocent and blameless. Here, the focus is not on Rama’s martial prowess or his
kingly attributes but the emotional aspects of Sita’s life and her very limited
happiness. We are made to feel the helplessness of women who are victimised
because their morality is suspect and which has to rely on the judgement of male
authority that sentences and punishes. Such mindless harshness destroys a
woman’s peace of mind and existence forever. Chandrabati paintsfor us a pregnant
and lonely Sita who yearnsto be pampered by her husband. Through Chandrabati,
we re-visit a vulnerable Sita who tells us that she has always felt lonely and
without a real home since she never knew her real parentage. Unlike Valmiki’s
Sita eclipsed by her husband, Lord Rama, Chandrabati’s Sita comes out of the
margins and shares the centre stage with her friends.
Activity 7
Can the Chandrabati Ramayana be referred to as a Ramayana?
1.7 LET US SUM UP
Chandrabati Ramayana is a text that was penned by a woman who was well
read and critical of her times. Through her Ramayana, she gives us the woman’s
point of view. This piece of writing was generally neglected and overlooked by
critics as trivial since it did not follow the typical patriarchal pattern of narration
or writing. It remained a “silenced text” for long and was only rediscovered in
the 1920s. What hasintrigued the critics by and large isits creative intertextuality.
Chandrabati Ramayana borrows across various mythologies like those of
Krishna, Prahlad and Shakuntala. The concepts of a biological mother, a foster
mother, fisherman and a cruel male-relative are not part ofthe original Ramayana.
Chandrabati has encouraged fresh perspectives on Ramayana. Above all, it is
extremely significant that Chandrabati’s Sita is named after a fisherwoman, Sata
– a deliberate strategy to underscore women and defy their secondary status in
society.
Undeniably, Chandrabati Ramayana is and will continue to be a text which will
continue to engage our intellect and force us to re-assess our moral yardstick.
1.8 AIDS TO ACTIVITIES
Activity 1: Gender affects our reading and interpretation to a certain extent in
the process of identification with the thoughts and feelings of the characters.Activity 2: It is called as such as it has been largely ignored within a system of
patriarchy.
Activity 3: Chandrabati often intrudes into the text and directly addresses the
characters herself.
Activity 4: Sita, not Rama, isthe central character who brings an end to Ravana’s
evil rule. She is Lakshmi’s incarnation who is destined to defeat Ravana and the
first sections of the book are devoted to her.
Activity 5: Madhab Jalia in Chandrabati Ramayana rescues the egg which
contains Sita’s life after it is thrown into the sea by Mandodari. Sata chooses the
name, Sita as a derivative of her own name.
Activity 6: Valmiki’s Ramayana is built around Rama and his public and political
image as a ruler and a brave warrior. In sharp contrast, Chandrabati Ramayana
is written from Sita’s point-of-view with hardly anymention of war and kingship.
Activity 7: The central character of Chandrabati Ramayana is Sita, not Rama
Therefore, it would be more appropriate to call it a Sitayana, not Ramayana
since it narrates the life of Sita and expresses her point-of-view.
1.9 GLOSSARY
abducted :
ascetic :
auspicious
ballad
kidnapped
a holy man/sage who has given up worldly
pleasures
: holy
: a folk song that tells a story
Womenspeak
1.8 AIDS TO ACTIVITIES
Activity 1: Gender affects our reading and interpretation to a certain extent in
the process of identification with the thoughts and feelings of the characters.
Activity 2: It is called as such as it has been largely ignored within a system of
patriarchy.
Activity 3: Chandrabati often intrudes into the text and directly addresses the
characters herself.
Activity 4: Sita, not Rama, isthe central character who brings an end to Ravana’s
evil rule. She is Lakshmi’s incarnation who is destined to defeat Ravana and the
first sections of the book are devoted to her.
Activity 5: Madhab Jalia in Chandrabati Ramayana rescues the egg which
contains Sita’s life after it is thrown into the sea by Mandodari. Sata chooses the
name, Sita as a derivative of her own name.
Baromasi : covering a period of twelve months
casket : basket/ case
clan : a group of closely knit families
dissenter : a person who disagrees
exploits : brave acts
gory : bloody
guise : a fake appearance
humiliation : insult
ideology : a set of beliefs and ideas
intertextuality : borrowings across texts
janmalila : story about birth
legend : famous person or story
mediator : a person who helps bring in an agreement between
two parties
mingle : mix
recurring : happening again and again
soothsayer : a person who tells the future
tactic : method/ strategy
tyrannizing : behaving like a cruel and heartless ruler
unabashedly : frankly
unrequited love : love which is not returned/ one-sided love
1.10 UNIT END QUESTIONS
1) Who was Chandrabati? What is so special about her Ramayana?
2) Who are the narrators in Book I, Book II and Book III of Chandrabati
Ramayana? How does it impact our reading of the text?
3) What do you understand by ‘heroic code’? To what extent is it found in
Chandrabati Ramayana?
4) How is Rama in Chandrabati Ramayana different from in Valmiki’s
Ramayana?
5) Why is Sita named after Sata in Chandrabati Ramayana? Why is this
significant?
6) Which Book is written from a patriarchal viewpoint? Why?
7) Why is the Chandrabati Ramayana considered a ‘silenced text’?
1.11 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING
1) Amirthanayagam, Guy. Asian and Western Writersin Dialogue.Ed..London:
The Macmillan Press Ltd. 1982. Print
mediator : a person who helps bring in an agreement between
two parties
mingle : mix
recurring : happening again and again
soothsayer : a person who tells the future
tactic : method/ strategy
tyrannizing : behaving like a cruel and heartless ruler
unabashedly : frankly
unrequited love : love which is not returned/ one-sided love
1.10 UNIT END QUESTIONS
1) Who was Chandrabati? What is so special about her Ramayana?
A Woman’s Retelling of the
Rama-Tale: The Chandrabati
Ramayana
2) Bedekar, D.K. and Kelkar, Ashok R., ‘Indian Consciousness through Ages:
Marathi Literature (1870-1970).’Maharashtra – AProfile: Vishnu Sakharam
Khandekar Felicitation Volume, V.S. Khandekar Amrit Mahotsava Samiti,
1977. Web
3) Bose, Mandakranta. “Reinventing the Ramayana in Twentieth Century
Bengali Literature.” In Bose, Mandakranta (ed) Ramayana Revisited. New
York: Oxford University Press, 2004. Print
4) Dasgupta Sanjukta and Lal, Malashri (eds). The Indian Family in Transition:
Reading Literary and Cultural Texts. New Delhi: Sage Publications India
Pvt Ltd, 2007. Print
5) Iyengar,Radhika.‘Diwali Special:ARamayan, but not about Ram.’livemint.
Web
6) Paniker, Ayyappa K (ed). Medieval Indian Literature: An Anthology. New
Delhi: Elegant Printers, 1997.
7) Patel, Utkarsh. ‘Birth of Chandrabati’s Sita.’ http://talkingmyths.com. Web
8) Sen, Geeti (ed). Crossing Boundaries. New Delhi: Orient Longman, 1997.
Print
9) Sen, Nabaneeta Dev. ‘When Women Retell the Ramayana.’ http://
www.manushi.in/docs/906-when-women-Retell-the-ramayan.pdf. Web
10. Shetiya,Vibha.‘TheChandravatiRamayana:AStoryofTwoWomen.’https:/
/ feminismandreligion.com. Web
UNIT 2 LAKSHMI KANNAN AND INDIRASANT: POEMS
Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Lakshmi Kannan and Rasha Sundari Debi
2.3 The Text – ‘Don’t Wash’
2.4 Understanding the Poem
2.5 Indira Sant
2.6 The Text – ‘Her Dream’
2.7 Understanding the Poem
2.8 Let Us Sum Up
2.9 Glossary
2.10 Aids to Activities
2.11 Unit End Questions
2.12 References and Suggested Reading
2.0 OBJECTIVES
On completing this unit, you will understand the challenges in the life of India’s
first woman autobiographer, Rasha Sundari Devi whose courage and patience is
the subject of Lakshmi Kannan’s poem, ‘Don’t Wash’. You will also be able to
see, through Indira Sant’s poem ‘Her Dream’, how a widow in India feels
unwanted because she does not have a husband to ‘complete’ her, and society
thinks that she is therefore inferior and inauspicious. At the end of this unit you
will see how society favours men and tries to keep women under control by
denying them education and an equal status to men without whom they are made
to feel like lesser beings.
Words in bold are explained in the Glossary
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The patriarchal system ensures that women are not allowed to participate fully
in life activities and are forcibly circumscribed by the four walls of their home –
and even more so, of the kitchen. In one of her interviews, Kannan tells us that
she has ‘always celebrated the struggle of the so-called “ordinary” women (and
men)… astruly heroic in the way they strive to triumph overtheir endlessstruggles
in life.’ It is sad that even today across India, girls are not allowed to develop
their talents and skills; they are only taught what is required to be deft
homemakers
2.2 LAKSHMI KANNAN AND RASHA SUNDARI DEBI
Lakshmi Kannan is a well-established Indian writer who writes on themes centred
round women issues. Her subjects are mostly middle class women who rebel
against limits imposed on them by society. Born in Mysore on 13 August 1947,
Kannan is among the pioneering Indian feminists writing from first-hand
observation and experience. She began writing in Tamil, and later in English as
well. She has also done her own translations of her Tamil writings into English.
Kannan writes under her Tamil pseudonym, Kaaveri something which reflects
herfondnessforthe river, Kaaveri with which she has a strong spiritual connection.
Her poems too reflect a lot of water and river images.She is a founding member,
and member of the governing body of the Poetry Society of India and has had the
distinction of being a jury-member for the CommonwealthWriters Prize, Eurasia.
Let us now talk a little about Rasha Sundari Devi – the person to whom Kannan
has dedicated her poem, “Don’t Wash”. Let me tell you that the nineteenth century
India in which Rasha Sundari was born was a very exciting age where traditions
were probed, questioned and re-written. This age is known as the age of the
Bengal Renaissance and Reformism – a time when women’s right to education
was campaigned for, and resistance to child marriage grew. During the 1800s,
women were largely deprived of education as it was widely believed that if a girl
became literate, her husband would die. This attitude towards women prevailed
everywhere – among the rich households as well as the poor ones.
Rasha Sundari was born in 1810 in the remote village of Pabna in East Bengal.
She had no memories of her father, Padmalochan Roy, who died when she was a
small child. There was a pathshala in her father’s house which was managed by
a missionary woman. Only boys were allowed to study here. Though she was
not allowed to attend this school, Rasha Sundari somehow learnt some Bangla
and Persian by being around in the school’s vicinity and overhearing what was
being taught. Her childhood came to an abrupt end when she was married off at
the tender age of twelve to a wealthy landlord, Nilmani Roy. You can only begin
to imagine her childhood trauma of leaving the security of her parental home to
live with strangers where she was expected to manage household chores!
Rasha Sundari Devi was a privileged high caste Hindu who was not expected to
do anything other than look after her family’sinterest and serve them. Her family
after marriage was not ready to accept or accommodate her aspiration to education
and Rasha Sundari’s life is motivational because she dared to educate herself in
the face of overwhelming odds. Her life became extraordinary because of her
courage to dream and realise it in the face of stiff opposition. She had hardly any
leisure time but she managed to practise reading and writing even while working
in the kitchen. She learnt with practically nothing – two sheets of written paper
and charcoal. She later recorded her life’sincredible story in her much-celebrated
autobiography, Amar Jiban – India’s first autobiography written by a woman.
Rasha Sundari’s husband and in-laws were religious-minded. Well, Rasha Sundari
too had a religious bent of mind! It was her strong desire to read devotional
works first hand that fuelled her resolution to become self-taught and, at the age
of twenty five, she started teaching herself to read the alphabets. Learning a
language is not easy, and learning it all by yourself when no one supports you and you are pressed for time is even more tough. It was by accident that her
husband left a copy of the Chaitanya Bhagvata in the kitchen. She quickly tore a
page out of this book, and, armed with this page and a palm leaf which her son
used for writing, she practised writing and taught herself the Bengali script. She
also scribbled on kitchen walls with charcoal stubs used for lighting the fire, to
improve her writing skills. She became a widow at the age of fifty nine, and
subsequently started working on her autobiography, Amar Jiban, which has been
praised for its simple and clear prose. Amar Jiban gives us an account of the
contemporary village life and the position of women. It also makes us familiar
with the writer’s views on various subjects, and motivates us to understand how
important it isto follow your dream and to take a stand in your life. Rasha Sundari
Debi died when she was around eighty eight years old, leaving behind a legacy
of inspiration and emancipation.
2.3 THE TEXT – ‘DON’T WASH’
(For Rasha Sundari Debi)
No, don’t.
Don’t ever clean with water
the dark, sooty walls
of your kitchen, Rasha Sundari.
For the akshara you scratched
on the walls so furtively,
the akshara you tried to match
with the sounds you heard
They’ve quickened now, with life.
Even as you wash rice, fish, vegetables
even as you peel, cut, bake, stir and cook
the thieving letters on the wall will take wings.
They fly down to the palm leaf
you once stole from your son.
See how the letters move
in the eyes of the mind,
then leap over, back to the wall
from the page of Chaitanya Bhagavata
you tore from the book
when no one was looking.
You need no book, Rasha Sundari
no paper or pen either
you have the black, smudgy kitchen wall
for your magical scribbles
lines, ellipses, curves
all of them your secret codes for
a whole new world.
2.4 UNDERSTANDING THE POEM
The poem, ‘Don’t Wash’is written by Lakshmi Kannan to honour and pay tribute
to Rasha Sundari Debi’s extraordinary spirit and grit: a woman who even risked
her reputation in her determination not to take anything lying down. Rasha Sundari
lived in a society where educated women were considered a bad omen. ‘Don’t
Wash’ helps us appreciate the intelligence, determination and daring with which
Rasha Sundari embraced what was socially unacceptable and even sinful, to
fulfil her dreams and live life on her own terms.
Kannan usesthe image ofwash asthe poem’s central metaphor.‘Wash’symbolises
customs which are considered sacred and are not to be questioned. Water has an
important significance in Hinduism where washing the place of worship, altar
and statues of gods and goddesses is an integral part of religious ceremonies. In
itself, water cleans filth. However, in the poem the poet persuades Rasha Sundari
Debi to leave the walls of her kitchen unwashed so that whatever she may have
scribbled on the wall remains intact and unerased. The sooty writing on the walls
underlines Rasha Sundari’s hopes and becomes a marker of her identity. Not
washing the walls is like saying that you should not change yourself because
society expects you to be different: your uniqueness should not be washed off
because it is what will make the world a better place where everyone – man or
woman – will have a fair chance to realise their worth. The kitchen walls in
Rasha Sundari’s house, blackened with charcoal soot look dirty and the kitchen
appears messy. But the poet insists that the walls are not to be washed as the
akshara is written on them. If you think about it a little more, you’ll realise that
the written word – akshara – is considered sacred in Hinduism. The poem argues
that the akshara continues to remain sacred and is not defiled just because it is
written by a woman.
Activity 1
Why were women not allowed to read and write?
There was a superstition that the written word – akshara – would lose itssacredness
and power if a woman wrote it.We are told that this writing on the wall has been
done “furtively” – it is an act of secrecy. This secret and furtive act is not an act
of cowardice but an effort which required commitment, guts and planning. To
wash off the traces of this action would have smothered Rasha Sundari’s inner
self asit wasthis writing which had brought meaning to her mundane and routine
life. The poet helps us appreciate the tremendous hard work and dedication that
went into her learning as she did not neglect any work that she was expected to
do
Activity 2
Do you think what Rasha Sundari did was correct? Why?
Rasha Sundari painstakingly completed all her household chores – “wash rice,
fish, vegetables… peel, cut, bake, stir and cook” – and alongside worked doubly
hard to memorise the letters she regularly scribbled on the walls. Despite her
tough schedule, she persisted in her efforts which helped her imagination and
intellect expand – “take wings.” With education,she could understand the complex
world and express herself in different ways. She was like a bird with strong
20 wings with which it could fly fearlessly.
Activity 3
Why did Rasha Sundari wish to get an education?
The poem has imaginative and complex descriptions written in a simple and
clear language because of which we understand the the poem with ease and
engage with difficult issues. We are provoked into re-thinking issues that we
take for granted and to question religious customs that we practise every day
without giving a second thought to how these customs underwrite and promote
discrimination against women. By understanding Rash Sundari Debi’s defiance
and her dedication, planning and perseverance, we realise that social change and
progress is only possible with belief in oneself, one’s cause and and unrelenting
commitment to it. A combination of intelligence and determination helped Rasha
Sundari’s fight against impossible odds. She had been able to tear merely a page
from her husband’s book, Chaitanya Bhagwat, and secretly keep with her only
one of her son’s palm leaves on which he practised writing. She constantly
imagined and re-imagined words to re-create them. Even though she had a bare
minimum,she taught herself to read and write – to eventually become an acclaimed
writer whose life inspired many a woman to rise against social injustice. We
unreservedly admire her daring to remain unwashed and unclean – blackened by
the ‘unholy’ deed of learning to read and write.
Activity 4
How does Rasha Sundari practise reading and writing?
The last four lines of the poem draw a subtle inference that the written script is
mysterious, full of “magical scribbles” that seem like a complex maze of
geometrical shapes – “lines, ellipses, curves” – to the illiterate. Only by not
washing off this mysterious writing can women gain entry into the world of
knowledge – “a whole new world.” The poem rises above the specific life of
Rasha Sundari to encourage women universally to take social criticism headlong
by not being afraid of what society can/will say. Only by risking their security
can women live on equal terms where they too have accessto reading and writing
– “secret codes” to empowerment. ‘Don’t Wash’ is a poem that asks us to look
into social taboos and assess their worth – whatever is forbidden is perhaps
forbidden not because it is unclean or evil but because it gives muscle to the
masters who do not allow and do not want certain sections ofsociety, like women,
to gain power or a status that challenges their monopoly.
‘Don’t Wash’ is a powerful poem which asks women to say no to social customs
that expect women to wash themselves of their dreams and their individual
identities. The poem pays tribute to Rasha Sundari Debi’s extraordinary courage
to listen to her heart and educate herself. When she practised writing on walls
which became black and sooty, she took a huge risk because she could have been
caught studying and punished severely for it. Lakshmi Kannan finds it very
disturbing that society takes whatever it finds serviceable from the women –
their ability to do hard work, and utility as homemakers and breadwinners, but
do not acknowledge or encourage their individuality and dreams. A woman’s
personal traits, talent, inclination or acquisition is considered useless unless it
provides material comfort to the family members. She believesthat it isimportant
for women to get a chance atsocial participation and decision making and stresses
the need to question and engage with the idea of what is acceptable and who
decides what is correct. To help women rise, you have to challenge patriarchy
and draw attention to injustices against women. People have to be persuaded to
understand that women should have equal rights and privileges as men. We need
to sponsor transgression, i.e. a breaking down of the boundaries of social
correctness. In her works, Kannan insists that in India women and ‘dalits’ have
been bracketed together and denied basic rights, like the right to recite the Gayatri
Mantra. To live their lives to the fullest, women have to rebel and create their
space where they can achieve their full potential.
While women in the West undertook to define feminist thinking and fight social
prejudices against women, Asian women have had a tough time trying to
rationalise and weed out traditional beliefs and practices that target and constrict
women to roles that are pre-defined for them. Indian society is suspicious of
change and the idea modern itself. Any activity that challenges tradition or
provides an alternative to tradition is labelled offensive and shamelessly modern.
Kannan’s works stoke women’s passion to re-discover themselves and assert
their identities as individuals, not just gendered beings – beings who are only
limited to their biological identities and gender, woman, nothing else. Through
her poems, Kannan gives us examples of women who refused to be restricted by
their gender. Like Rasha Sundari Devi, they followed their dream. Such women
inspire us to have faith in ourselves and the courage to risk our reputation and
comfort zone so that our tomorrow as well as the future of the coming generation
of women is more just and happy
2.5 INDIRA SANT
Indira Sant is an acclaimed Marathi poet who has written on diverse issues that
concern women. She was born into a progressive Maharashtrian family as Indira
Dikshit on January 4, 1914 in the small town, Tavandi in Belgaum District,
Karnataka. Her childhood was spent in the rural areas of Southern Maharashtra,
which provided her with a typical Indian sensibility that colours her various
works. She attended Rajaram College in Kolhapur and Fergusson College in
Pune. It was at the latter college that she met Narayan Sant, whom she married in
1936. Together, they published a collection of their poems, Sahwas in 1940.
However, their married life was short-lived as Narayan Sant died within ten
years of their marriage. Indira was grief-stricken and the poignancy of her tragic
loss echoesthroughout her works. Her determination and optimism saw her reach
heights in her professional and creative life. A professor, she later became the
principal of a teachers’ training college in Belgaum and wrote twenty-five books
during her lifetime. In 1984, she was honoured with the Sahitya Academy Award
for her collection of poems, Garbhareshmi as well as many other prestigious
awards like the Janasthan Award and the Maharashtra State Award. In 1975, the
acclaimed poet Nissim Ezekiel translated her poems into English and published
them as Snake-skin and other poems of Indira Sant. She passed away on 13 July,
2000.
2.6 ‘HER DREAM’
Her dream, like the dream of a dozen other women.
A full plate, deliciously full.
Places to go, things to do, morning and evening
Neatly ironed clothes. A nicely furnished home.
Sometimes a play, sometimes a concert – with the best seats.
All the happiness in the world on a meagre income.
Laughter and teasing. Talk and chatter.
Her dream, like the dreams of a dozen other women.
But she woke up before the dream began.
And then she never fell asleep again.
2.7 UNDERSTANDING THE POEM
‘Her Dream’ is a moving poem in which the poet gives us a realistic picture of an
Indian widow. You must have noticed how widows are often treated cruelly by
society and even by other married women. Even if widows are not openly insulted,
they are expected to wear dull colours, be humble – even self-effacing – not
enjoy life or eat lavish food and have personal desires and dreams. At this point,
it is a good idea to discuss whether it is possible to be alive and not have dreams.
We are humans; dreaming, planning and hoping come naturally to us. We may
face tragedies but that does not make us stop looking forward to good times.
Don’t you agree that in your darkest moments you wish someone could comfort
you and make you smile again? Yes, no one wants to be alone or to receive
shabby treatment. Why are widows deliberately made to feel their pain over and
over again? Yes, some pain is unavoidable because of the absence of a husband
and his companionship. But to force it down a woman’s throat and to victimise
her because she is a widow is shameful and unforgivable. If you look around,
you willsee how widows are not invited to festivals and ceremonieslikemarriages
– their presence is considered inauspicious. It is as if they are responsible for
their husband’s death. As a result, widows become disillusioned and stop
dreaming.
‘Her Dream’ begins on a poignant note. It tells us that every woman has dreams
and dreaming is not limited to married women alone. The unnamed woman in
the poem represents a typical Indian widow whose identity is lost because her
life and existence depends on her husband: without a husband, she loses her
social status and is unable to partake of the simple joys of married life. The poet
lists the widow’s everyday dreams which move us because of their simplicity,
and the eventual realisation that these humdrum activities are no longer for her.
Even before she could have started relaxing and daydreaming leisurely after her
wedding, her happiness was smashed and her dreams came to nought. Unable to
dream, she became restive and sleep lost its pleasure. Her life became a stretch
of hopelessness where there was no rest or serenity. She became agitated and felt
utter despair when she lost her husband whom she loved tremendously and who
pampered her.
The woman’s desires were simple. She had always hoped for a married life where
she would be on her toes, busy running everyday errands, and also be spoilt by
her husband’s affection. The joys that she had always looked forward to are
listed in the poem. Her first desire had always been to have a “full plate.” The
phrase “full plate” suggests not only sufficient food to eat, but a life full of
responsibilities, doing chores so that there is hardly any leisure time. The woman
had always looked forward to this hectic married life because it would have
made her immensely happy, just like a plate filled with delicious and mouth
watering delicacies pleases the taste buds. The poem tugs at our heart with the
realisation that this woman no longer finds happiness because these
responsibilities are no longer special for her after her husband’s death. She feels
unwanted and vulnerable. Her pain intensifies when she sees a “dozen women”
around her busy with their daily errands, running around happily – their plates
“deliciously full.” The lives of these women are a flurry of activity – they
accompany their families on various trips and are ever alert, seeing to it that
everything functions smoothly. They have no time to spare. Mornings and
evenings alike keep them engaged with an endless list of “things to do.” The
poet tells us that women are central to their families. It is a woman who sees to it
that every family member is well turned-out with neatly ironed clothes. This
involvement with the family makes a woman’slife meaningful. However, without
a husband, a woman feels incomplete and gets no happiness in doing household
chores for she does not have a husband who will appreciate her and make her
feel special.
Activity 5
Why does the speaker wish for a “full plate”?
Married women keep their home spick and span, and the family members happy.
A woman’s home is “nicely furnished” because she takes complete care of
everything while her husband contributes to her well-being. A woman’s marital
life is full of responsibilities that have their own pleasurable and light-hearted
moments. The widow in the poem is no different from other women. She had
always looked forward to spending quality time with her husband and enjoying
his company and like any other young girl, had fancied the idea that her husband
would escort her to some or the other event – “a play” or “a concert.” She had
pictured these moments of togetherness where her husband would go all out to
make her feel special by booking the best seats for them so that they could relax
and unwind, and enjoy the finest view possible. She had fantasised that life would
be a beautiful journey of shared happiness and companionable moments. She
had always anticipated a life where she would be indispensable to her man who
would need her to take care of his day to day needs while he would make an
effort to make her feelspecial by giving her comfort and a break from her routine.
She believed that their togetherness would fill their lives with laughter and cheer
and their happiness in being together would make problems like shortage of
money, insignificant. The widow was convinced that she and her husband would
tide through bad times because of their patience with each other and their shared
love.
The reality of her life pains the widow as her life is strikingly different from her
cherished daydreams. Hersis a cold and lonely world where she has no companion
to share her troubles with or to make her feel treasured. She had visualised a
husband who would love her dearly and see to it that she had everything she
needed, and a lifestyle that would make her feel the significance she held for
him. She had never imagined a life without her husband where mindless chatter
and shared laughter would be missing. With her husband’s death, she is left with
shattered dreams and wistful longing. There is only desolation and nostalgia for
her. Her marital life was short-lived and now seems like an impossible beautiful
dream. With her husband’s death, she was jolted into a harsh reality where she
realised that the dreamsshe had shared with “a dozen other women” would never
come true. Her life was now so steeped in sorrow that “she never fell asleep
again” and forgot her troubles: her dreams were ruined and relaxation became
impossible.
The poem moves us with its simplicity and honesty of emotions. We feel for the
woman whose dreams are like every other woman’s, but who now faces a life
where her dreams remain sheer dreams, without a shred of possibility of their
ever coming true. All the promising, beautiful moments that could have been
possible with a husband now remain beyond her. She knows that now her life
will be lonely where she will have to survive on a “meagre income” without a
companion who would have seen to it that she always had a plush life with a
“nicely furnished home” and regular visits to performances to relax and unwind.
Her life appears quite meaningless to her because she feels left out in the cold
without a husband needing her to complement his life and make it smooth by
taking care of his routine needs. The poem expresses a widowed woman’s deep
anguish at a life where responsibilities would continue unabated but love and
companionship would be absent – a life of utter loneliness and hard work where
shared laughter and talk would aways be missing.
2.8 LET US SUM UP
The two poems read in this unit highlight two different aspects of women’s lives
in India in the not so distant past – illiteracy and widowhood.
‘Don’t Wash’ is a powerful poem which asks women to say no to social customs
that expect women to wash themselves of their dreams and their individual
identities. The poem pays tribute to Rasha Sundari Debi’s extraordinary courage
to listen to her heart and educate herself. Rasha Sundari practised writing on
walls which became black and sooty. She took a huge risk by not washing the
walls because she could have been caught studying and punished severely for it.
The speaker in the poem, ‘Her Dream’ is a widow who had always had simple
dreams of being happy with her husband, looking after him and getting spoilt by
him. There was nothing extraordinary about her dreams, except that when she
lost her husband these dreams became impossible to realise and filled her life
with immense grief. She had always looked forward to a happily busy life where
she would have had to iron clothes, tidy the house and plan visits to plays and
concerts. She had dreamt that her life would be full of caring for her family and
loving her husband who in turn would also make her feel special by laughing
with her and teasing her. It would be a beautiful life where relationships would
matter and money would be secondary.
2.9 GLOSSARY
chatter : gossip, small talk
ellipses : three dots “…” in a sentence which show
(plural of ellipsis) continuation of thought and mystery
full plate : a busy schedule
furnished : equipped with furniture
furtively : secretly
meagre : not enough
scratched : written hurriedly
scribbles : untidy writing
smudgy : dirty
sooty : greyish black
take wings : fly/ be free from confinement
thieving : stolen
quickened with life : became meaningful/ came alive
2.10 AIDS TO ACTIVITIES
Activity 1: Women were not allowed to read and write because it was believed
that if a woman was educated, she would bring bad luck and death to her family
Activity 2: Rasha Sundari practises reading and writing furtively. It is correct
because everyone has a right to education, which is denied to women because of
baseless superstitions that educated women are a curse on their families.
Activity 3: Rasha Sundari was a very imaginative and intelligent woman who
was curious about the world. She could only “fly” with the wings of education to
gain access to this knowledge which was barred to women.
Activity 4: She tore out a page from her husband’s book, Chaitanya Bhagwat
and took a palm leaf from her son’s book. She read and re-read the page from
Chaitanya Bhagwat and imagined the words in different combinations. She
practised writing on her son’s palm leaf and the walls of the kitchen where she
prepared food and washed utensils.
Activity 5: The phrase “full plate” suggests a life which is full of activities that
keep going on and on. The widow who feels she has no one to take care of or
someone to make her feel special finds that everything is now meaningless.
2.11 UNIT END QUESTIONS
1) What is it that Lakshmi Kannan does not want to be washed? Why?
2) Why are the kitchen walls sooty, black and smudgy?
Womenspeak meagre : not enough
scratched : written hurriedly
scribbles : untidy writing
smudgy : dirty
sooty : greyish black
take wings : fly/ be free from confinement
thieving : stolen
quickened with life : became meaningful/ came alive
2.10 AIDS TO ACTIVITIES
Activity 1: Women were not allowed to read and write because it was believed
that if a woman was educated, she would bring bad luck and death to her family.
Activity 2: Rasha Sundari practises reading and writing furtively. It is correct
because everyone has a right to education, which is denied to women because of
baseless superstitions that educated women are a curse on their families.
3) Why are the letters described as “thieving” and “taking wings”?
4) What would you say is the central idea of the poem, ‘Don’t Wash’?
5) What is the dream in the poem ‘Her Dream’? What happens to it?
6) What does the speaker in ‘Her Dream’ want her deliciously full plate to
contain?
7) In what ways does the woman in ‘Her Dream’ feel that her dreams are
unfulfilled?
8) Explain the line, “she woke up before the dream began./ And then she never
fell asleep again”.
2.12 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING
1) Amirthanayagam, Guy (ed). Asian and Western Writers in Dialogue.
(London: The Macmillan Press Ltd. 1982).
2) Banglapedia, National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh//web.archive.org
3) Bedekar, D.K. and Kelkar, Ashok R. ‘Indian Consciousness through Ages:
Marathi Literature (1870-1970)’, Maharashtra – A Profile: Vishnu Sakharam
Khandekar Felicitation Volume, V.S. Khandekar Amrit Mahotsava Samiti,
1977. Web. February 6 2019.
4) Chandra, Swati. ‘Rashsundari Debi’s Amar Jiban and Binodini Dasi’s My
Story and My Life as an Actress:A Comparative Study’, in Bite, Vishwanath
and Bite, Madhuri (eds). The CriterionAn International Journal in English.
5) Dasgupta, Sanjukta and Lal, Malashri (eds). The Indian Family in Transition:
Reading Literary and Cultural Texts. New Delhi: Sage Publications India
Pvt Ltd, 2007. Print
6) http://marathikavitasangrah.in/category/indira-santen.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Indira_Sant
7) http://sahitya-akademi.gov.in/sahitya-akademi/awards/akademi%20
samman_suchi.jsp
8) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indira_Sant
9) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rassundari_Devi
10) https://klon.org/discuss-concept-double-colonization-postcolonial-womenwriters-contest-patriarchy-colonialism-essay
11) https://www.academia.edu/4008542/Enabling_Feminist_Critiques_
Review_of_Empire_Media_and_the_Autonomous_Woman
12) https://www.youthkiawaaz.com/2016/11/rassundari-devi-autobiography/
13) Kannan, Lakshmi. ‘Don’t Wash’ in Unquiet Waters N Delhi: Sahitya
Akademi, 2005
14) Sant, Indra. ‘Her Dream’ in Arthur W Biddle et al (ed) Global
Voices:Contemporary Literature from the Non-Western World. Pearson,
1995
2) Banglapedia, National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh//web.archive.org
3) Bedekar, D.K. and Kelkar, Ashok R. ‘Indian Consciousness through Ages:
Marathi Literature (1870-1970)’, Maharashtra – A Profile: Vishnu Sakharam
Khandekar Felicitation Volume, V.S. Khandekar Amrit Mahotsava Samiti,
1977. Web. February 6 2019.
4) Chandra, Swati. ‘Rashsundari Debi’s Amar Jiban and Binodini Dasi’s My
Story and My Life as an Actress:A Comparative Study’, in Bite, Vishwanath
and Bite, Madhuri (eds). The CriterionAn International Journal in English.
5) Dasgupta, Sanjukta and Lal, Malashri (eds). The Indian Family in Transition:
Reading Literary and Cultural Texts. New Delhi: Sage Publications India
Pvt Ltd, 2007. Print
6) http://marathikavitasangrah.in/category/indira-santen.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Indira_Sant
Lakshmi Kannan and Indira
Sant: Poems
15) Tharu, Susie J. and Lalita, Ke (eds). Women Writing in India: 600 B.C. to
the Early Twentieth Century. Vol.1. NewYorK: Feminist Press, 1991. Print
UNIT 3 NASEEM SHAFAIE: POEMS
Structure:
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Text: ‘Neither a Shadow Nor a Reflection’
3.3 Critical Analysis
3.4 Text: ‘Solitude – For the Girl Child’
3.5 Critical Analysis
3.6 Let Us Sum Up
3.7 Glossary
3.8 Aids to Activities
3.9 Unit End Questions
3.10 References and Suggested Reading
3.0 OBJECTIVES
In this unit you will understand and analyse the poems ‘Neither a Shadow nor a
Reflection’ and ‘Solitude for the Girl Child’ by Naseem Shafaie. By the end of
the unit you will be able to relate to problems faced by girls and women in a
male-centric society. You will also appreciate that resistance and dialogue, more
than confrontation, can empower women.Some important issues and questions
that will be discussed and resolved through this unit will relate to the position
and treatment of women down the history, and in contemporary times. You will
be able to answer questions related to the need for respect, appreciation and
consideration toward girls and women who leave their home to go and live with
strangers when they get married.
Words in bold are explained in the Glossary
3.1 INTRODUCTION
UNIT 3 NASEEM SHAFAIE: POEMS
Structure:
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Text: ‘Neither a Shadow Nor a Reflection’
3.3 Critical Analysis
3.4 Text: ‘Solitude – For the Girl Child’
3.5 Critical Analysis
3.6 Let Us Sum Up
3.7 Glossary
3.8 Aids to Activities
3.9 Unit End Questions
Written in simple and moving language, the poems appeal to their readers to let
women be. The poems argue about the need to allow women and girl children to
realise their potential and we are aware of a restrictive society where change can
only come if we become aware of the pain our traditions cause. The poems make
a strong statement that women are individuals in their own right who cannot be
treated as puppets by their husbands. What makes a woman worthy of being
celebrated is that she does not seek revenge and has the strength to walk out of a
bad situation to create a more wholesome society where people are more kind
and accommodating.
Naseem Shafaie (1952-) is a contemporary Kashmiri poet who writes, among
other things, about Kashmir, women from Kashmir and their perspective. She
has a Masters degree in Kashmiri language and literature. In 1984 she joined the
higher education department of Jammu and Kashmir Government, and hastaught
undergrads at the University of Kashmir. In 2011, she was honoured with the prestigious SahityaAcademyAward for her collection of poems,Neither a Shadow
nor a Reflection (published in 2007). She is the first Kashmiri woman ever to
have been bestowed this distinction. Her works have been translated into several
languages including English, Italian, Korean, Urdu, Kannada, Tamil, Marathi
and Telugu. According to a blog, Kashmir Forum, Shafaie’s poetry is “an
expression of a woman’s inner passion for self-esteem, and self-admiration…
termed as ‘Sun Passion’ by Kshemendra, the 10th century writer from Kashmir.”
You will be interested to know that in the 1970s, Shafaie was the only woman
poet to attend mushairas in Kashmir.
3.2 TEXT: ‘NEITHER A SHADOW NOR A REFLECTION’
As always you once again came, standing
at the door speechless. Only if I had been
in possession of a few words would I decorate
them on your lips and hear those fiery words you wish.
unable to decipher,I feel the heat of your eyes.
I knew for me you would certainly come,
I felt the hope of your arrival and felt,
that like a gale of spring, you would enter my heart, and
every particle of my life would get rejuvenated.
But you stand still where the string was broken,
You never guess how many forms you gave me,
I, like Lalla, rose in the late hours of the night,
and lulled you in my lap and woke you up.
I, like Habba Khatoon, said you are the sky,
I am your earth, you the shelter of my secrets,
the garden belongs to you, come and enjoy it,
what rival of mine lured you away?
Stay a while and ponder, didn’t I sing:
Ó love I shall adorn you under the cherry trees,
Fasted I for you that you stay with me.
My nights passed reciting holy verses for you.
If like Krishna you wish and change your guises,
If that Habba Khatoon decides and leaves you midway, what
if she too feels hate, she is not to be slayed.
Even if now you find some clue, come and stay a while,
realise your fault, I shall know you have come for me; you
come now, like a true Adam beside me.
I shall be assured that you realised:
I am neither a shadow, nor a reflection.
(Translated from Kashmiri by Prof Indu Kilam)
3.3 CRITICAL ANALYSIS
While reading the poem you must have realised this is a love poem which is very
different from the ones we generally read. In this poem, you hear the voice of a
woman who loves her man with all her heart. She tells us throughout the poem
how she has devoted her entire life to caring for her husband in every possible
way. Whenever he needed her, she was there and she always adjusted to his
ways. However, the subject of this love poem is not only this woman’s love and
dedication to her man. It also tells us the other side of the story – the man’s
attitude towards his beloved and how he returns her commitment and affection.
You will agree with me that the poem shows us the politics of love in a man’s
world where women end up doing whatever is needed to make their man’s life
comfortable and happy, while men take their women for granted and gradually
become indifferent towards them. The poet tells us in the opening words of the
poem – “As always”– that this one-sidedness in a man-woman relationship is
universal: it is to be found everywhere. The poem tries to make us understand
that both – man and woman – can be equally happy if the man responds to a
woman’s love and care by being there for her when she needs him and by letting
her be what she wishes to be, even helping her to express herself in ways she has
never been allowed to by the male-centric society. I hope you can see for
yourselves the significance of the poem’s title – ‘Neither a Shadow, Nor a
Reflection’.
Have you ever thought of becoming your own shadow and reflection instead of
remaining a shadow to others and someone else’s reflection? Shadows and
reflections have no independent existence. They are empty forms which merely
follow and repeat the movements of the body. If you think about shadows and
reflections, you will be able to see that shadows have no colour – they are black,
whereas reflections have colour. Yet, both – shadows and reflection – cannot do
anything on their own. The surface where they appear remains blank tillsomething
or somebody comes on the scene. Shadows and reflections are lifeless and their
actions are never theirs. What would you like to be? Surely not a shadow and a
reflection!
My guessisthat all of us would want to be independent people with a fair chance
to live and act the way we want to. The poem’s title, ‘Neither a Shadow nor a
Reflection’ conveys a similar desire – the hope to be a person with an identity
and not merely another’s shadow with no identity, dreams or ambitions. The
woman in this poem asserts that she is a woman, a living being, not a lifeless
reflection. And because she is animate, she is not to be shamed and treated with
disrespect. This poem is an assertion of a woman’s self-respect where she asks
her man to be “beside” her. The woman reminds her man that she has been with
him whenever he needed her, and that he should never ever abandon her even
when the patriarchal society tries to silence her honest dreams and forbids her
from talking about her pain and sorrow.
Activity 1
Write down your own thoughts on what you feel is the subject of the poem
We have tried to understand the title of the poem. You must have realised by now
that the title also indicates the theme, which is about a woman’s protest at not getting a fair deal from her man despite her being there for him whenever and in
whatsoever capacity required. The poem’s subject is the subjugation of a woman
by patriarchy, and the woman’s courage to raise her voice against the injustices
done to her. What makes this poem unique is that while relating her sufferings
and asking for a just treatment, the woman stressesthat men complement women
and they should be with each other, not against each other. The poem suggests
that women should stand up against men’s cruelty and indifference, and help
them understand where they have gone wrong. Naseem Shafaie “re-imagines
the whole relationship of male and female based on mutual love, self-respect
and dignity.”
The poet makes references to various religious and mythological figures. Why
do you think she does this? Well, if you read the poem closely, you will see that
the poem does not focus on any particular community; it triesto make the readers
realise that women experience abuse and neglect globally. And, because societies
are largely patriarchal/ male-dominated, don’t you think the poet is trying to tell
us that patriarchy needs to be checked? Women are capable of bringing in social
equality and justice by refusing to accept ill-treatment silently. “If that Habba
Khatoon decides and leaves you midway… she is not to be slayed” is a powerful
statement thatsupports women who, refusingto compromise on theirself-respect,
walk out of bitter relationships. Slaying suggests extreme violence and the poet
insists that violence can never improve relationships. Men and women can live
together only when a man supports and respects his woman “like a true Adam” –
the first human created by God– who never left his woman and always stood by
her even when she made a wrong decision. The poet tries to make her readers
understand that if you love someone, you do not make them feel guilty, but help
them get over their mistakes and lead wholesome lives.
Activity 2
Against whom does the speaker plan a protest? What is the strategy?
The poem has an intense tone. It begins with a rather exasperated and desperate
woman who complains to her man that he keeps coming back to her but remains
“speechless”. We feel hersense of betrayal, for conversation happens only among
friends who have common ground; by being incommunicative, she and her
husband become near strangers. The woman tries to analyse her man’s strange
behaviour and concludes that he does not speak to her because he cannot
understand her. She tells us that her vocabulary is limited and she does not
“possess” the simplest of words through which she can make him understand
her feelings and share her passion. The woman says that if she could begin to
even speak about her own desire, her man would grow closer to her and share his
“fiery words” of pleasure, which would enrich their relationship. You can easily
imagine how much better this would be from their present where the man “stands
still” and “speechless” and his woman is “unable to decipher” his passion
Activity 3
What is the woman “unable to decipher?” Why?
The poem celebrates and affirms a woman’s faith in her man. She longs for him
to come to her as she feels incomplete without him: “I felt the hope of your
arrival…every particle of my life would get rejuvenated.” With him she is filled with optimism and an enthusiasm for life. However, when he does not treat her
as a companion, a sense of worthlessness overcomes her– she is reduced to a
musical instrument with broken strings that has neither beauty nor melody. The
poet goes on to use mythological legends to portray how women have stood by
their men through bad and good times down the ages.
Why do you think the poet refers to mythology? Why do you think the woman’s
dialogue with her man suddenly gets so complicated? What is the poet getting
at? Well, you are right if you think she is trying to make the readers understand
that a woman is emotional, passionate, dependable and strong, and that her belief
in mankind has the power to inspire confidence in not only her man but in the
entire society to treat their women folk with respect. All the women who are
mentioned had the courage to move on when their husbands could not love them
and treat them respectfully.We are made to think about complex issues like
morality and society’s expectations. Are we dealing with something that is more
than just the subject, love? Let us explore the poem a little further.
Well,shadows and reflections are inversions: they are not only lifeless but altered
– left becomes right and right becomes left. The poem suggests that this is a
natural phenomenon. However, the man-woman relationship is a social
phenomenon created by tradition and patriarchy. We can bring positive change
by becoming more aware of the consequences of our actions. The best way forward
is to generate awareness of how gender imbalances make women feel insecure,
vulnerable and threatened. It is but natural that men will feel guilt and seek
forgiveness, which the female voice in the poem says must be forthcoming:
“realise your fault… I shall be assured that you realised:/ I am neither a shadow,
nor a reflection.” Revenge is not a solution for it cannot undo injustices. To be
given her space, freedom and identity is a woman’s right. She should not let
herself be reduced to a lifeless and drab reflection which follows her man’s
instructions and is not allowed to have hopes and dreams of her own. Lalla,
Habba Khatoon and Eve – the much celebrated women in the poem – were not
only dedicated to their men but had strong identities of their own. They were
with their men in different avatars – as a mother or seductress or as a devotee or
guide. Their strong individuality and faith in the power of love is legendary.
Lalla and Habba Khatoon were from Kashmir. The two of them had much in
common even though Lalla was from the fourteenth century and Habba Khatoon
lived in the seventeenth century. Both were married when they were just twelve
or thirteen. Their husbands and in-laws treated them badly because of which
they walked out of their marriage. Lalla became an ascetic who raised her voice
against the wrongs committed by the ruling Brahmanical classes. Though she
was a Kashmiri Pundit, she spread her revolutionary ideas by writing poetry in
the Kashmiri language, not the elitist Sanskrit which was the symbol of the upper
classes. Lalla challenged the authority of Sanskrit in the 1400s by composing
Vakh in the local language. She inspired the peasants and the common man to
such an extent that she has since been venerated by Muslims and Hindus alike.
Habba Khatoon was a beautiful and gifted child who composed sensitive poems
and sang beautifully. Her original name was‘Zoon,’ which is Kashmiri for moon.
Her exceptional beauty attracted Yousuf Shah Chak who became her second
husband and went on to be the last independent ruler of Kashmir during the
Mughal era. It is believed that Zoon was his inspiration. She was widowed
32 following a long tragic separation from him when he did not listen to her advice to not accept the Mughal emperor,Akbar’sinvitation to visit Delhi.Akbar betrayed
Yousuf’strust and imprisoned him till he died. Habba Khatoon wasso heartbroken
that she left her home, wandering from place to place, composing and singing
sad soulful songs. Habba Khatoon was the last Queen of Kashmir who gave
excellent advice to the king. She was also an accomplished poet who composed
Lol, the first ever Kashmiri lyrics. She stirred the Kashmiri imagination greatly–
a hill named after her testifies to her legacy.
Lalla and Habba Khatoon were women whose love-life was not all smooth. Their
greatness lies in their refusal to accept defeat. They were strong and creative
individuals who composed outstanding poetry which helped the local Kashmiri
language to evolve and made people aware of social ills and the necessity of a
just attitude towards women. Lalla created a new form of devotional and
philosophic poetry – Vakh, while Habba Khatoon created lyric poetry, Lol. Eve
is a mytho-religious figure who took an independent but incorrect decision to eat
the forbidden fruit of Paradise. Her disobedience resulted in her and Adam being
expelled from Paradise where life was extremely comfortable, to Earth, where
life was very tough. Eve was a companion to God’s first human creation, Adam.
She took a bold decision to eat the forbidden fruit of Paradise because of which
she andAdam were thrown out of Paradise to Earth where they faced innumerable
problems. However, despite her rashness, Eve is celebrated because she remained
loyal to her husband and never left him.
Activity 4
What makes the women from the myths exemplary?
‘Neither a Shadow nor a Reflection’ is an assertion of every woman’s right to be
like Krishna and behave as the situation requires for a woman is a thinking and
feeling person, not just a lifeless image. The poet punctures the romantic image
of an idealised beautiful woman by showing us women who are capable of anger
and of overcoming it. All the three women are truly exemplary because they
inspire other women to never accept defeat, to be courageous and to contribute
to the betterment of society so that there is equality and justice. Their positive
contribution to society is their hallmark.
‘Neither a Shadow nor a Reflection’ is a poem which describes the trauma faced
by independent-minded women down the history and across religions. The poem
tells us that a woman has enormous patience and courage because of which she
is able to take care of her husband and also fight for him in adversity. A woman’s
selflessness should not be abused and lead to her victimisation. The poem gives
us examples of courageous and strong women who were taken for granted and
exploited, but who refused to take this unjust treatment silently. These women
not only rebelled against their partners but also contributed to making a more
just society. They have become legends and are universally celebrated.
3.4 TEXT: ‘SOLITUDE – FOR THE GIRL CHILD’
Gently rouse her, calling in tones soft,
Lest she should with loudness be jarred.
Full asleep is she, her eyes half open,
Such beauty in blameless purity makes me afraid,
Verily the smuggling case of my bosom is she
And the honour of her father’s tilted cap.
A daughter she is, a houri of paradise;
Once she leaves home, it will be for ever.
When some day in distant parts she dwells
Where what the people be like! I know not,
Will they awaken her on gentle, mellow sounds?
Or, will they, I misgive, snatch her sleep away?
(Translated from Kashmiri by G.L.Labru)
3.5 CRITICAL ANALYSIS
‘Solitude – for the Girl Child’ is a touching lyric, musical and full of startling
images. It is a mother’s prayer for her daughter. The mother feels her heart ripping
at the thought that her child will have to one day live with and among unfamiliar
people who may not value her uniqueness. You know for sure that all parents
treasure their children. Have you noticed how protective they are towards their
girl child and wondered why it is so? Let’s ask ourselves what makes parents,
especially mothers worry over their girls. Don’t you think it has to do with the
way women are brought up and treated?Well, think again if you disagree! Mothers
want their children to never have bad experiences. But a mother in traditional
Indian society feels helpless when her daughter gets married as after her marriage,
the daughter becomes part of her husband’s family where her parents can only
be visitors. The mother in the poem is agitated by the thought that her daughter
may receive indifferent treatment in her marital home where lack of love and
concern would make her restless and sleepless. The poem expresses a mother’s
overwhelming sorrow for her precious daughter’s uncertain future where she
could forever remain deprived of tender, loving care. The poem’s title is her
desperate desire to let her daughter be herself. The word solitude conveys a
sense of comfort where a person is not disturbed but comfortable and happy with
his/her identity. Girl-child suggests a pre-puberty girlhood, which is significant
since once the child grows into a young girl, society will not leave her alone. The
mother wants her daughter to have a carefree childhood without any tension
because she is afraid that her life could be chaotic in the future.
The poem is composed as a prayer to all those who care to hear. Do you see how
beautifully the poem begins? “Gently rouse her” tells us that the girl-child is fast
asleep. We are asked to gently awaken her. The poet deliberately uses the word
rouse as it is not only a synonym for awaken, but suggests awareness. The poem
uses the image of a sleeping girl-child to portray innocence but who will sooner
than later be made aware of the real world where kindness and consideration for
a young girl is much wanting. The mother knows that her girl-child is just a
child: completely trusting. She sleeps without a care, “her eyes half open.” The
“half open”eyes create a picture of a child who is full of energy and curiosity,
and like every other child, wary of unfamiliar faces. The girl’s attractive looks
and innocent nature worry the mother even though she knows that the girl has
done nothing wrong – is pure and blameless. Why? The next stanza subtly leads
us to the answer after we are made to understand the society in which the family
lives and their social status/ standing. The mother confesses that their daughter
is her husband’s pride just like a cap or turban or pagdi is the symbol of a clan’s honour.The entire clan is insulted if the pagdi is handled casually. Similarly, the
father feels very strongly about his daughter’s dignity, and the slightest possibility
that his daughter may be disrespected upsets him. The poet describesthe mother’s
heart as a box or a chest that has cracks. Like the stored objects in a cracked box
are not completely safe, the mother’s emotions are vulnerable because her heart
– her case – has cracks of concern that her daughter may be abused. Worry keeps
“smuggling” into her heart – consciously or subconsciously she remains anxious
about her daughter and what can happen to her
Activity 5
Why does the mother say “Gently rouse her”?
The child is her father’s pride and a product of his upbringing – she is the one
who will now be the upholder of his values. She has to live her life with
consideration to the family’straditions without breaking down the socialstructure.
The daughter is extremely attractive. She is described as an “houri” – a girl so
beautiful that she seems to be a gift of paradise on earth. This worries the mother
because the girl would sooner or later have a string of admirers. The thought that
she could leave home to live among unfamiliar people who may admire her
makes her jittery. The mother becomes extremely anxious thinking of what will
happen to her daughter who in her parental home has always slept undisturbed
and only been spoken to softly. There is a strong possibility that the people she
goes on to live with could have a lifestyle and attitudes very different from theirs
– people who are loud and disrespectful to women. The poem ends on an agitated
note with the mother voicing her greatest fear that her daughter may lose her
peace of mind completely and never ever sleep again.
The poem is a mother’s desperate hope that her child always has a calm and
peaceful life – solitude – even when she lives away from her parents with her
husband and his family. I think you can understand that each one of us has a
personal space where we can do things we like and be the way we want to be. We
are carefree at home. Once we leave home, we are expected to shoulder
responsibilities which sometimes break us. No one wants to be alone, but no one
deserves to be taken for granted or ill-treated either. Married girls are usually
expected to be uncomplaining even while doing backbreaking chores. You will
agree with me that the poem ends on a note which is harsh and troubling, but
realistic: a girl’s innocence and attractiveness can get her a suitor but cannot
guarantee her solitude and keep her safe from abuse.
In ‘Solitude – for the GirlChild’ we come across a mother’s overwhelming concern
for her daughter who is still to become a woman. The mother worries that her
little girl who is at present full of life, spontaneity and happiness will soon be
forced by society to follow suffocating customary practices. These customs will
require the child to marry and become an obedient and unquestioning wife and
daughter in law who will have no choice but to do what her in-laws ask her to do.
The mother prays that her daughter will be looked after in her husband’s home
which will be in a strange land with unfamiliar customs. This poem grieves over
the inescapable loss of the girl’s spontaneity, freedom and carefree ways.
3.6 LET US SUM UP
In this unit you have read about a woman’s courage to rise above hersad situation
and contribute positively to society, which leads to her society celebrating her as
a legend that continues to inspire people down the ages. She underscores her
uniqueness by saying that no matter how comfortable and plush her life is and
can be,she will never become a doormat because she is not a dark lifelessshadow
or a colourful but emotionless image which has no self, and comes into existence
only to replicate and duplicate someone. The woman says that she will not let
anyone disrespect her or take her for granted because she is an individual with
feelings and thought. She offers examples of much loved and devoted wives
from earlier recorded times before her man so that he understands love, not
persecution and revenge and thus help create a strong relationship.
You have also heard a mother’s prayer for her daughter as she grows up in a
traditional and orthodox society which does not allow freedom of expression
and action to its women. The mother hopes that her daughter gets married into a
family that accommodates her bubbly nature. These poems have helped you
become aware of customary practices that are regressive with regard to women
and need to be changed so that we can have a just society where women can
express their individualities and be the person they want to be.
3.7 GLOSSARY
adorn : decorate
assured : become certain about/ not be doubtful of
decipher : make sense of
dwells : lives
fiery : full of energy and high-spirited
gale : strong breeze
guise : appearance
houri : a pure and extremely beautiful girl
jarred : very much disturbed
midway : middle of the journey
lest : otherwise
lulled : put to sleep
lured : attracted by wrong means
mellow : soft and subtle
misgive : be afraid of
every particle : smallest part
ponder : think deeply
rejuvenated : filled with life once again
rival : enemy
rouse : awaken
shelter : a place where you are safe
slayed : killed with violence by a sword or a sharp weapon
solitude : to be peacefully all by yourself
stay a while : stop for some more time
tilted cap : a metaphor for someone who is different from others
and is lovable
verily : in truth
3.8 AIDS TO ACTIVITIES
Activity 1: The poem’s subject is a woman’s strong refusal to be reduced to a
nobody by a male-centric, patriarchal society. The female voice in the poem
symbolises every oppressed woman’s protest.
Activity 2: The speaker in the poem is a woman who plans a protest against
people, especially men in a patriarchal society, who treat their women with
disrespect. Herstrategy isto reform such men through persuasion and insistence,
not revenge and violent retaliation.
Activity 3: The woman is “unable to decipher” why her man stands silently at
the door with passion in his eyes. She does not understand his silence and his
intense, “fiery” passion because she has neither been taught her man’s language
nor permitted to express her passion.
Activity 4: The women from the myths are exemplary because of their strong
personalities who lived life on their terms, never compromising their dignity.
They had the courage to listen to their heart, follow their dreams and create a fair
and just society.
Activity 5: The mother wants her girl-child to be treated with gentleness and
wants her daughter to be woken up tenderly as she is still a child and who might,
all too soon be among strangers who will not treat her so considerately.
3.9 UNIT END QUESTIONS
1) Why does the speaker in the first poem want to be “in possession of a few
words”? What does she want to decorate?
2) What doesthe speaker mean when she says, “every particle of my life would
get rejuvenated”?
3) Who stands “still where the strings was broken”? Why?
4) Why “if she too feels hate, she is not to be slayed”?
5) How can women be empowered, according to the poet?
6) Why does the mother ask everyone to speak in “tones soft”?
7) Why is the girl-child special? What is needed for her?
8) Explain the line, “Such beauty in blameless purity makes me afraid”.
9) What can happen to the girl-child “When some day in distant parts she
dwells”?
3.10 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING
1) Beauvoir, de Simone. The Second Sex. London: Jonathan Cape, 2009.
2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naseem_Shafaie. Web January 25 2019.
3) https://thekashmirimages.com/2018/06/02/in-conversation-with-naseemshafaie/
4) JLF 2017: “Read literature, not history to understand Kashmir,says Naseem
Shafaie,” Hindustan Times. Web. February 10, 2019.
5) Kashmirforum.orgApersonalJourney and a Political Memoir.Web. February
10 2019.
6) Mohiudin, Akhter, A Fresh Approach to the History of Kashmir. Srinagar:
Book Bank, 1998.
7) Parray, Ashaq Hussain. ‘Re-Imagining the Man-Woman Relationship: A
Feminist Appraisal of Select Poems of Naseem Shafaie’, The Criterion: An
International Journal in English Vol. 8, Issue-III, June 2017. ISSN: 0976-
8165.
8) Shabir, Junaid. “The Recounting of Loss, Pain and Gloom in the Poems of
Naseem Shafaie”.
9) Shafaie, Naseem. Open Windows. Srinagar: Kashmir Publications 1999.
10) ———————. Neither Shadow nor Reflection. Srinagar: Kashmir
Publications 2000.
11) The Criterion Vol.6, Issue December 2015.
12) Toshkhani, S.S. Lal Ded : The great Kashmiri saint-poetess. New Delhi:
A.P.H. Pub. Corp. 2002.
UNIT 4 ‘SAPAVIMOCHANAM’ (‘THE REDEMPTION’) BY PUDHUMAIPITHAN
Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 The author: Pudhumaipithan
4.3 Excerpts from ‘Sapa Vimochanam’ (‘The Redemption’)
4.4 Discussion
4.5 Let Us Sum Up
4.6 Aids to Activities
4.7 Glossary
4.8 Unit End Questions
4.9 References and Suggested Reading
4.0 OBJECTIVES
This unit will introduce you to ‘Sapa Vimochanam’ (‘The Redemption’) a Tamil
retelling of the Ahilya story from another point of view. By the end of this unit,
you will be able to appreciate how the recounting of a familiar story from a
different perspective impacts the reader. You will also be in a position to
understand that stories have not always been told from a woman’s point of view
and how this affectsthe storiesthat were told and the response to them. Although
the other texts featured in this Block – “Womenspeak” – have been written by
women, it issignificant that a male writer hasrecast a familiar tale from a woman’s
perspective and is thus worthy of study.
Words in bold are explained in the Glossary
4.1 INTRODUCTION
It may be argued that every telling of a story handed down to us over the ages is,
in essence, a re-telling for every narrator adds and revises – albeit sometimes
unintentionally – the story, to suit the audience and the mood. On the other
hand, some writers deliberately change and tweak details of a familiar story so
that it offers new insights. It is like looking at the photograph of a well-known
scene that one has become accustomed to and almost ignored but which now
appears new and fresh because of a change in perspective. These revisions enjoy
the advantage of presenting a story that is known to most readers but with a twist
that serves to convey what the revisionist wishes to by the addition or otherwise
of certain details in the oft-repeated tale. The first unit in this Block spoke about
the retelling of the Ramayana by Chandrabati. This unit takes up one of the
episodes in that epic and sees how the retelling is handled.
Activity 1
What purpose do you think a retelling serves? Can you think of any in your
own language?
4.2 THE AUTHOR: PUDHUMAIPITHAN
Pudhumaipithan is the pseudonym of C. Viruthachalam (25 April 1906 – 5 May
1948), one of the most influential and revolutionary writers of Tamil fiction who
wrote poetry, short stories and political works. His works were characterized by
social satire, progressive thinking and outspoken criticism of accepted
conventions. He as an individual and his works have been extensively reviewed
and debated for over sixty years since his death. His influence has been accepted
and appreciated by the present day writers and critics of Tamil fiction.
Pudhumaipithan was the first Tamil writer to successfully use a dialect of Tamil
other than that of Chennai or Tanjore. Most of his charactersspoke the Tirunelveli
dialect. His stories were set either in Madras or in Tirunelveli, the two places
where he spent considerable portions of his life. His writing style had a mixture
of colloquial and classical words. Gentle satire even while handling complicated
and serious situations was his hallmark.
4.3 EXCERPTS FROM ‘SAPA VIMOCHANAM’
On the path, a statue of stone. Its broken, decrepit state notwithstanding, the
enchanting face would still kindle chivalry. The intoxication it induces would
make one wonder whether an extraordinary sculptor came down to the mortal
world to crystallize his dreams in stone. However, in the eyes of that goddess
brims a sorrow – a sadness that cannot be bound by words, which kills lust in
onlookers and submerges them in grief too. It was no ordinary dream of the
sculptor but was shaped by a curse. This is Ahilya.
She lies sculpted in stone on that forest path, sorrowful, in the lap of Nature
which looks at her desolation with the detached eyes of an ascetic. She isscorched
by the sun, soaked in mist, lashed by the rains. Dust, soil, sparrows, owls sit on
her; fly away. She lies like a tapasvi, without awareness – as stone.
A short distance away is an anthill. Immersed in austerities, totally absorbed,
forgetting his sorrow, sits Gautama in deep meditation. Nature nourishes him
too…
The rustle of the Ganga in the distance. Mother Ganga could perhaps sense their
boundless sorrow!
Many ages passed like this for the couple. Then one day…
The midday sun was undeniably severe. But in spite of that, the green shade and
the flowing breeze flowed coolly into the mind like elements of faith that could
soothe the afflictions of the world, seeming to banish sorrow by awakening
belief and strength.
Like a lion, walking proudly, ruminating over the joy of having completed what
he had undertaken, comes Vishwamitra. Maricha and Subahu have been
40 obliterated without a trace. The old tyranny of Thataka has been crushed. There
is the satisfaction of having made of himself the medium through which peace
and succour came to those who immersed themselves in religious rituals and
were guardians of the scared flame.
He looks back frequently. What love shines in that glance! Two youngsters
come running behind him, playing catch. They are none other than the child
incarnations – Rama and Lakshmana themselves. Having begun the end of the
demons and unaware of its import, they run and play, carefree.
Their running stirs up the dust. Lakshmana runs in front; the one who chases
him is Rama. A drift of dust touches the statue…
Delighting in their boisterousness, Vishwamitra looks back. And just stands
there, gazing.
A drift of dust settles on the statue.
The heart that had turned to stone some time long ago now throbs within. The
blood that had congealed in the veins it used to course through now starts to
flow. The warmth of life spreadsthrough the stone and bringsit to the roundedness
of life. Consciousness returns.
Ahilya closes and opens her eyes. There is awareness. Redemption from the
curse! Redemption from the curse!
O God! The flawed body of flesh has been made pure!
Who is the godly being that has come to give her renewed life? Is it that little
child?
She prostrates at his feet. Rama looks at the rishi with astonishment.
Vishwamitra has understood all. She is Ahilya. The simpleton who had been
deceived by Indra’s magical disguise. She is Gautama’s wife – one who, in her
boundlesslove for her husband, had fallen prey to the illusion of Indra’s enchanted
pretense and had defiled her body. He tells Rama the whole story. There, look at
that anthill; like a silkworm cocooned in silence, Gautama sits immersed in
meditation. Lo, he too has arisen now!
… Rama’s education peers through the eyes of dharma and assumes the light of
clarity and serenity. But it has not been honed on the whetstone of experience;
he hasthe teaching of Vasishtha who saw every strand of life’stangles unbroken
from one weave to the next. Yet he is unaware of the swerving from the virtuous
path and consequent disgrace, giving the mind the strength to walk boldly on
new paths.
What is the nature of the world that it should twist around and disturb one in
such a contrary fashion! Punishing someone for a deed…which neither the heart
nor the unhurriedness of the intellectual faculty could contain? With a cry of
“Amma!” Rama falls at her feet in reverence.
Both the rishis (one possesses boldness itself for intelligence; the other views
love as the foundation of all dharma) rejoice at the ideas that rise in the little
one’s window of awareness. What a fine, loving, bold truth!
“To accept her who erred unknowingly would be the right thing to do”, says
Vishwamitra softly.
The roughness of his voice seemsto be at variance with the coolness-laden breeze.
Gautama, his wife, the pillarless structure which had once been their dwelling
and had collapsed into a mound – none of this moved from the spot. But now,
the place which had been bereft of life earlier was profusely drenched with
signs of life.
…Their hearts were completely filled with tenderness and affection. Yet, both of
them suffered in their two different mind-prisons.
Ahilya’s only worry was whether she was worthy of Gautama.
Gautama’s only worry was whether he was worthy of Ahilya.
The flowersthat bloomed along the edges of the path looked at them and laughed.
… In accordance with Ahilya’s wishes, Gautama started his dharma vichara in a
small hut on the banks of the river Sarayu in Ayodhya, a little away from the
fields that skirted the city, in a place where the odour of human custom and
tradition did not permeate. Gautama now had implicit faith in Ahilya. Even if
he were to see her lying in Indra’s lap, he would not doubt her – such was his
faith in her absolute chastity. He now felt that if she were not with him, it would
completely destroy his dharma vichara.
Ahilya loved him greatly in a way that could not be measured. When she thought
of him, her mind and every part of her body would thrill like that of a newly wed
girl. But the stone that had settled on her mind did not shift. She wished to
conduct herself in a way such that no one would point fingers at her, why, even
stare at her in a particular way. Consequently, her demeanour underwent a change
from its natural disposition. It was as though all those who surrounded her were
Indras; fear lodged itself in her heart. From that time onwards, speech and
playfulness vanished completely. She would speak only after having rehearsed
the words a thousand times in her mind, having examined them from all
perspectives and judged their appropriateness. She would agonize over whether
there was any hidden meaning even in ordinary words uttered by Gautama.
Life itself had become the tortures of hell for her.
The rishi Mareechi came one day. Dareechi had visited them on an earlier
occasion. Madanga too, on his way to Varanasi, dropped in to enquire about
Gautama’s well being. Although they were full of love and concern, Ahilya
cringed in their presence. Her mind lay all curled up and withered. Even the
tradition of hospitality accorded to guests seemed to be on the point of being
transgressed. She shied away from meeting the eyes of even those who looked
at her in an ordinary manner, feeling that she could not look at them with a pure
heart. She hid inside the hut.
…Sita and Rama would from time to time come that way eagerly, riding on their
chariot. An incarnation, this child, to Gautama’s mind, seemed to be the
embodiment of the ideal youth. Even his laughter and playfulness, like selfreplenishing lamps of dharma shastra, appeared to interpret the essence. And,
the fondness of that youthful couple! It reminded Gautama of his life in time
past.
Sita was the dove that had come to alleviate the burden on Ahilya’s mind. To
Ahilya, her speech and laughter seemed to scrub and rinse away the stains on her
spirit. It was only in her presence that Ahilya’s lips would curve into a smile and
the light of enthusiasm would gleam in her eyes.
They were destined to rule after all, growing up under the watchful eyes of
Vasishtha, weren’t they? They came to thisisolated, different world tucked away
on the bank of the river Sarayu to the beings dwelling there, restoring the joy of
a previous time.
Ahilya disliked going out and moving around in the outside world. Sita’s
companionship eased the weight on her mind and gave her some strength.
She had consented to go to Ayodhya during the celebrations that would surround
the coronation. But then, the power of the whirlpool of emotion that swirled
within the palace! In one breath, it took away Dasaratha’s life, banished Rama
to the forest and sent off Bharata in tears and haircloth to Nandigram.
‘Sapavimochanam’ (‘The
Redemption’) by
Pudhumaipithan
Holding out the brass pot filled with water for him to wash his feet, Ahilya’s lips
quivered.
“I am not at peace here. Let us go away to Mithila”.
“All right, get ready then. It’s been a long time since we saw Sadananda too”,
said Gautama as he went out of the hut.
Both of them walked towards Mithila. In the minds of both, a weight had settled
and made its home. Gautama paused a little. He reached out for Ahilya’s hand
as she followed him and held it tightly as he resumed walking. “Don’t be afraid”,
he said. And they continued walking in the direction of Mithila.
… Ahilya loved bathing and playing in the river. Feeling that the bank of the
Ganga would give her a sense of calm, she would go off alone at dawn, carrying
her water pot.
For a couple of days, alone, in peace, allowing the tendrils of her mind to spread
freely, with a contented feeling of having shed her burden, she bathed, dipped,
played and came back with the pot full of water.
This did not go on for long.
She was walking back after a bath with bent glance, having let her mind wander,
when she heard the tinkle of toe rings. Wives of some Rishis! They were also on
their way to bathe in the river. As soon as they spotted her, they rushed away to
avoid contact as though she were an outcaste, gave her a fearful look and
proceeded.
“She is the one; she is Ahilya”, could be heard from a distance. These words
scorched her more than the fire in Gautama’s innards that had given rise to the
curse.
Her mind burned and roared like the flames at a cremation ground. Thoughts
churned. “Dear god! Even if there has been redemption from the curse, will
there never be redemption from the sin?” she agonized.
…The day declines and the horizon goes dim. Two people are walking towards
Ayodhya along the edge of the Sarayu river.
Fourteen years have passed and merged with the floodwaters of Time. There are
no munis or gods they have not glimpsed; not a holy place they have not visited.
But peace of mind is the only thing they do not have.
Like a Shankara’s philosophical edifice that remains out of reach to the grasp of
a man bereft of strength, they stood on weakly faltering legs and viewed the
unattainable heights of Mount Kailasa from misty peaks.
They crossed deserts that seemed to be a metaphor for the erosion of faith which
the burden of their pain had engendered.
They went around volcanoesthatspewed smoking ash and dust like theirscorched
spirits.
They went up to look at the ceaseless waves of the ocean that battered the shore
like their thoughts and retreated.
…Ahilya rejoiced in the thought that Sita and Rama would come to see them.
And they did, assoon asthe welcoming excitementsubsided, without an attending
retinue.
Rama, on whose brow experience had etched a network of lines, alighted from
the chariot. Sita’s beauty had blossomed through her experience. The intense
laughter of both evoked the ecstasy of moksha.
Gautama took Rama away with him on a stroll outside.
With the tender love like to one who had been carried in her womb, Ahilya
escorted Sita inside. Both sat with faces wreathed in smiles.
Ravana carrying her away, the pain, the liberation – all this Sita related without
the stains of anguish having faded away.After having been reconciled with Rama,
44 where was the place for pain anymore?
She spoke about the agni pravesham, her ordeal through fire. Ahilya writhed in
pain.
“Did He ask for that? Why did you do it?”
“He asked for it. I did it”, replied Sita calmly.
Both remained silent for a long time.
“Should it not be demonstrated to the world?” said Sita and laughed softly.
“Isn’t it enough for the heart to know? Is it possible to demonstrate the truth to
the world?” questioned Ahilya. Conversation languished.
“In any case, will it become the truth through a demonstration? What if it never
even touched the heart? Let it be; what of the world?” queried Ahilya.
The chariot rolled away; gradually the sound of the wheels subsided too
Gautama stood there lost in thought…He went inside.
Ahilya was in a daze. Once again the Indra drama – the Indra drama that must
needs be forgotten, was playing in the theatre of her mind.
Gautama embraced her.
To her it seemed to be Indra come in the guise of Gautama. Her heart congealed
to stone. What peace!
Lying trapped in Gautama’s hands was a stone statue.
Ahilya turned into stone again.
The burden on the mind disappeared.
(Translated from Tamil by Malati Mathur)
4.4 DISCUSSION
The incident of Ahilya cursed by her husband, Rishi Gautama, for submitting to
Lord Indra when he appeared in the guise of Gautama, and her redemption by
young Rama, is a well-known episode that forms part of the Ramayana. The
episode serves to reinforce the divinity of Rama and, as a corollary, the idea that
there is redemption for even grave sins if there is submission and repentance. In
addition, according to Jaya Srinivasan, Ahilya’s actions and the resultant curse
are a warning that immoral behaviour leads to doom.
Early narratives portray Ahilya as consciously making the decision to accept
Indra’s advances, having seen through his disguise as Gautama. She is said to
have done this out of curiosity and flattered by his interest in her, as well as her
pride in her incomparable beauty. As Jaya Srinivasan comments, “Ahilya
was…sharp enough to recognise Indra’s disguise. Yetshe acquiesced to his desire.
In fact, being conscious of her beauty, she was proud to have been desired by
Indra himself.”
However, later re-tellings absolve her of guilt and describe her as having been
the victim of a cruel trick or of having been forced to submit to Indra’s demands.
All the narratives agree that she and Indra are cursed by her husband, the Rishi
Gautama and while the nature of the curse may vary according to the text, they
all reiterate that Rama would be the eventual cause of Ahilya’s liberation from
the curse. Interestingly enough, the Buddhist and Jain Ramayana do not feature
the story of Ahilya.
In earlier versions of the story, Ahilya is purified by offering hospitality to Rama.
Puranic tales were the first to describe her as being turned to stone and brought
back to life by the touch of Rama’s foot, a variation taken up by later versions as
well.
Activity 2
In what way would the patriarchal mindset have impacted the reworking of
Ahilya’s story?
Tulsidas, in his Ramacharitamanasa,as well as other poets of the Bhakti period
view this episode as exemplifying God’s saving grace as epitomized by Rama.
The story is just one of many in the epic as it develops upon the divine aspects of
Rama’s character and the fulfillment of his destiny as an avatar but modern
writers often tell the story from Ahilya’s perspective. Pradip Bhattacharya says
Ahilya is unique in her daring act and its dire consequences. For Bhattacharya,
Ahilya is the eternal woman who responds to her inner urges and the advances of
the divine ruler, a direct contrast to her ascetic husband, who did not satisfy her
womanly desires. The author regards Ahilya as an independent woman who makes
her own decisions, takes risks, and is driven by curiosity to experiment with the
extraordinary and then accepts the curse pronounced on her by patriarchal society.
While Ahilya is a minor character in all ancient sources, stigmatized and despised
by those around her for violating gender norms, the kind of attention that she has
received from modern South Indian writers suggests that she is no longer an
insignificant figure.
In Sapa Vimochanam (1943), celebrated Tamil writer Pudumaipithan takes up
the tale of Ahilya from where Valmiki leaves it off in the Ramayana and talks of
her life after the redemption. Where the epic focuses more on the transgression,
the punishment and the subsequent redemption, the Tamil story brings Ahilya to
the reader as a real person with thoughts and feelings.
Prema Nandakumar remarks, “Pudhumaipithan’s imagery partakes of the
sulphurous currents that keep the human body in thrall”. She then goes on to
cite the opening lines of the story in which the incomparable beauty of the figure
sculpted in stone is described as being bound by the overwhelming sorrow in the
eyes which would, at a glance, kill lust in any beholder.
Pudhumaipithan goes with the later version of the tale and assumes that Ahilya
is innocent and a victim of Indra’s trickery. When Rama is told the story of
Ahilya’s curse after he has redeemed her from it, he wonders: ‘What kind of a
world would penalize one for an action controlled neither by the heart nor the
mind?’ And Vishwamitra tells Gautama: ‘To accept her who erred unknowingly
would be the right thing to do’.
Pudhumaipithan also describes how Gautama regrets his hastiness in judging
and condemning Ahilya: ‘Gautama could notspeak to her with an unsullied mind
as in earlier times. That day, when he had abused her as a harlot, it was as
though he had scorched his very tongue.’ As he muses upon dharma, Gautama
concludesthat ‘Only actionsthat came about with mindfulness and self-awareness
would leave stains…In his mind, Ahilya glided as one without blemish. He was
the one who had been foolish he reflected; the anger which had fed the flame of
his curse had defiled him.’
Although both feel a depth of tenderness and affection for each other, ‘yet, both
of them suffered in their two different mind-prisons. Ahilya’s only worry was
whether she was worthy of Gautama. Gautama’s only worry was whether he was
worthy of Ahilya.’
Interestingly, there is also the description of what has been called “post-trauma
repetition syndrome” in whichAhilya relives and re-experiencesIndra’sseduction
and Gautama’s fury over and over again: ‘Ahilya loved him greatly in a way that
could not be measured…But the stone that had settled on her mind did not shift.
She wished to conduct herself in a way such that no one would point fingers at
her, why, even stare at her in a particular way. Consequently, her demeanour
underwent a change from its natural disposition…fear lodged itself in her
heart…She would speak only after having rehearsed the words a thousand times
in her mind…She would agonize over whether there was any hidden meaning
even in ordinary words uttered by Gautama.’
Activity 3
Why does Ahilya go over the past incidents over and over again?
So what did life after the redemption signify for Ahilya? It certainly wasn’t one
of unalloyed joy at having been redeemed from the curse and given a second
chance at life and marital bliss for, ‘Life itself had become the tortures of hell for
her.’ She shied away from meeting anyone who came to visit them, refusing to
meet the eyes of even those who approached with genuine love and concern as
she felt that she could not do so with a pure heart.
Having started life anew, the couple experience pleasure in the visits of the
youthful Rama and Sita, and the latter particularly seemed like a ‘ dove that had
come to alleviate the burden on Ahilya’s mind. To Ahilya, herspeech and laughter
seemed to scrub and rinse away the stains on her spirit. It was only in her
presence that Ahilya’s lips would curve into a smile and the light of enthusiasm
would gleam in her eyes.’ To Gautama, Rama ‘seemed to be the embodiment of
the ideal youth. Even his laughter and playfulness, like self-replenishing lamps
of dharma shastra, appeared to interpret the essence.’ And the obvious fondness
that the couple shared reminds Gautama of his life in time past.
Ahilya is prepared to go for Rama’s coronation to Ayodhya but before that can
happen, the forces that were unleashed ‘took away in one breath, Dasaratha’s
life, banished Rama to the forest and sent off Bharata in tears and haircloth to
Nandigram.’ Ahilya is so devastated by this that her ‘mind went back to the state
when it had lain inert while she was an image of stone.’ It was as though her
mind grows lifeless with the shock and sorrow, as when she had been in the
stone-like state.
Gautama and Ahilya decide to go away to Mithila to be with their son. There,
one day, when she is returning from her daily dip in the Ganga, Ahilya meets
some women – the wives of other rishis. They recognize her and flinch from her
presence as though she were an outcaste: “She is the one; she is Ahilya”. These
words scorched her more than the fire in Gautama’s innards that had given rise
to the curse. Her mind burned and roared like the flames at a cremation ground.
Thoughts churned. “Dear god! Even if there has been redemption from the
curse, will there never be redemption from the sin?” she agonized.’ The whispers
and pointing fingers are an ongoing torment. What sort of redemption was this?
The two then set out on a long pilgrimage, returning only when fourteen years
have passed, to await the return of Rama and Sita from the forest. As soon as the
welcoming excitement subsides, the new king and queen of Ayodhya visit them
and Sita tells Ahilya of all that had transpired, including her ordeal by fire.
When Sita remarks with bitter irony that purity and innocence needs to be
demonstrated to the world, Ahilya questions: ‘Isn’t it enough for the heart to
know? Is it possible to demonstrate the truth to the world? In any case, will it
become the truth through a demonstration?’ The allusion obviously is to her
own experience wherein she feels that whatever happened between her and Indra
never reached her heart as her heart always belonged to Gautama and could not
be sullied by another’s touch.
When Gautama enters the hut after the royal guests have left, he finds Ahilya in
a daze: ‘Once again the whole drama of Indra – the drama that must needs be
forgotten, was playing in the theatre of her mind…Gautama embraced her. To her
it seemed to be Indra come in the guise of Gautama. Her heart congealed to
stone. What peace! Lying trapped in Gautama’s hands was a stone statue. Ahilya
turned into stone again.’
Reverting to the state before her redemption by Rama is essentially the choice
that Ahilya voluntarily makes not only because her life has become abhorrent
to her in the aftermath of the curse but because of her intense rage over society’s
injustice towards women. It is her protest against the hypocrisy of a patriarchal
set up and the arbitrary judgment and punishment meted out to women as part
of ‘dharma’. The Ahilya in the Tamil story emerges as a strong woman who,
willingly turns to stone again, rejecting her redemption.
Prema Nandakumar comments that ‘There is a feverish glow about
Pudhumaipithan’s Ahilya that does make the story feminist in essence.’ In ‘Sapa
Vimochanam’, Pudhumaipithan brings Ahilya to life and casts her in a feminist
mould, questioning and protesting against societal norms that are tragically
skewed and heavily biased against women.
4.5 LET US SUM UP
In this unit, you read excerpts from ‘Sapa Vimochanam’ by the celebrated Tamil
writer, Pudhumaipithan. You could see how the author portrays Ahilya as a
sensitive woman who is tormented by her past and who, ultimately is filled with
righteous anger and disgust at the double standards of society which had different
rules for men and women
4.6 AIDS TO ACTIVITIES
Activity 1: A re-telling allows the narrator to bring in local cultural elements and
to offer a fresh perspective.
Activity 2: The patriarchal mindset would condemn a woman’s conduct in this
situation in absolute terms and banish her to a state of non-existence, as though
she did not deserve to live any longer.
Activity 3: Every word and action of the past still affect her behaviour and make
her over cautious in whatever she does or says.
4.7 GLOSSARY
Abhorrent : inspiring disgust
Absolve : declare free from guilt
Acquiesced : accepted
‘Sapavimochanam’ (‘The
Redemption’) by
Pudhumaipithan
Espousing : supporting
Gautama : Rishi, husband of Ahilya
Haircloth : stiff, rough cloth
Harlot : woman of loose character
Honed : sharpened
Honorific : title
Kannagi : legendary Tamil woman who forms the central
character of the Tamil epic Silapathikaram (100-300
AD).
Maricha : rakshasa (demon), killed by Rama.
Moksha : salvation
Afflictions
Aftermath
Ahilya
:
:
:
Alleviate
Arbitrary
Ascetic
Bereft
Congealed
Corollary
Decrepit
Edifice
Engendered
disorders
effects
wife of the sage Gautama Maharishi, seduced by
Indra, cursed by her husband for infidelity, and
liberated from the curse by Rama.
: reduce
: without a system
: hermit
: deprived of
: to change to solid state
: resulting from something
: broken down
: structure
: gave rise to
Pillaged : looted
Sadananda : son of Ahilya and Gautama
Skewed : biased
Spewed : erupt
Stigmatize : condemn
Subahu : a rakshahsa
Succour : comfort
Sulphurous : wicked
Tandava : divine dance performed by Shiva
Thataka : rakshasi, mother of Subahu
Transcendental : relating to the spiritual
Transgressed : break the law
Transpired : happened
Vasishtha
Venerated
Vishwamitra
Whetstone
: a rishi
: respected
: a rishi
: a fine-grained stone used forsharpening cutting tools
4.8 UNIT END QUESTIONS
1) What isit that greatly troubles bothAhilya and Gautama after her redemption
from the curse? Why do you think this is so?
2) Why does Ahilya shy away from meeting people? Is there any reason for
her to do this?
3) What aspect of Sita’s narration of the fourteen year exile touches Ahilya
most? Why?
4) What do you think of Ahilya’s voluntarily turning back into stone?
4.9 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING
1) Bhattacharya, Pradip. “Five Holy Virgins, Five Sacred Myths: A Quest for
Meaning (Part I)”. Manushi (March–Apr 2004), (141) 4–7.
2) Devy, Ganesh. After Amnesia: Tradition and Change in Indian Literary
Criticism. Hyderabad: Orient Longman, 1992.
3) —————————. In Another Tongue: Essays on Indian Literature in
English. 1993. 3rd edition. Madras: Macmillan India Ltd., 1995.
4) Manavalan, A.A. (Tamil) Rama Kathaiyum Ramayanankalum (“The Rama
Story and Ramayanas”). 2005. 2nd edition. Chennai: Institute of South
Indian Studies, 2012
5) Mukherjee, Sujit. Translation as Discovery. Hyderabad: Orient Longman,
1994.
6) ——————————. Translation as Recovery. Delhi: Pencraft
International, 2004.
7) Nandakumar, Prema. ‘Myth as metaphor in feminist fiction.’ Hindu, Book
Review, (2006).
8) Ramanujan, A.K. The Collected Essays of A.K. Ramanujan.New Delhi:
Oxford Univ. Press, 1999.
9) Richman, Paula (ed)). Ramayana Stories in Modern South India: An
Anthology. Indiana University Press, (2008), pp. 27, 111.
10) Srinivasan,Jaya. “Lessonsfrom theAhilya episode”. Hindu. (30 September
2002).
11) —————————.”Expiation of Sin”. Hindu (25 June 2010)
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