BPCS-186 Managing Stress Text Book
Block-1 Introduction to Stress
The course on Managing Stress (BPCS 186) is a 4 credits course offered
under Bachelors Degree Programme of IGNOU. It is a Skill Based Elective
offered in the IVth Semester. The main objectives of this Course are to
acquaint learners with the concept, nature and manifestation of stress and
to help them learn the strategies of managing stress. The course is divided
into two Blocks. Each of these Blocks represents a specific theme which is
discussed in terms of Units. The Units are arranged in a logical sequence so
as to cover the main aspects of each theme.
Before proceeding to read the units, you are advised to go through instructions
about how to read the course material. Given below is the explanation of the
organization and sequencing of a Unit.
Organization and Sequencing of a Unit
The following is the structure of each Unit:
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Section (Theme of the section)
1.2.1 Subsection of 1
……………….
Check Your Progress I
1.3 Section (Theme of the section)
1.3.1 Subsection of 2
……………….
Check Your Progress II
Let Us Sum Up
References
Key Words
Answers to Check Your Progress
Unit End Questions:
As the scheme suggests, each unit is divided into sections for easy reading
and better comprehension. The numbering and length of each section and
subsection may vary from one unit to the other, depending upon the depth
of information in each unit. Each section is indicated by BOLD CAPITALS
and each sub-section by a relatively smaller but bold typeface. Divisions
within the sub-sections are in relatively smaller bold typeface so as to make
it easy for you to understand.
Let us now discuss each section of a Unit.
Objectives
We begin each Unit with the section Objectives. It tells you briefly about
the objectives of the Unit and what you will learn after you study the Unit.
Introduction
The section Introduction will mainly focus on introducing the theme of the
present Unit.
Illustrations
There are several illustrations in each unit in the form of figures and diagrams.
The main purpose of these illustrations is to make the study comprehensive
and interesting.
Check Your Progress
We have given self-check exercises under the caption Check Your Progress
at the end of main sections. You can provide your answers in the space give
below each question/ exercise.You will be tempted to have a glance of the
main text as soon as you come across an exercise. But we do hope that you
will resist this temptation and t urn to the main text only after
completing the answers.You should read each unit and note the important
points in the margin provided in the course material. This
will help in your study. It will alsohelp you to answer the self-check
exercises and the assignment questions, as well as help in revising your
course before appearing for your Term End Examination (TEE).
Let Us Sum Up
This section of each unit under the heading Let Us Sum Up summarises the
whole Unit for the purpose of ready reference and recapitulation.
References
We have given a list of references at the end of each Unit. This is a list of
books and articles used by the course writers to prepare the Units. This
reflects that your course material is based on a wide spectrum of literature
available on a particular theme, related to your course. This also informs you
of the wide literature available in the particular area of study. If interested
in widening your knowledge, you may look for the mentioned references.
Each reference mentions the name of the author, year of publication, title of
the book/article, name of publisher and place of publication. Suggested
readings help you to increase your level of understanding of a particular
theme in each Unit.
Key words
The key words at the end of the Unit explain the basic ideas, technical terms
and difficult words.
Answers to Check Your Progress
Answers to Check Your Progress are given in this section.
Unit End Questions
Besides Check Your Progress, we have given Unit End Questions in each
unit. Practicing these questions will help you in answering assignments
and Term End Examination Question Paper, though the pattern and style of
questions asked may vary.
Audio and Video Aids
Some Units have been selected for the audio and video programmes to
supplement the printed material. This will help you to understand the Units
with greater clarity.
Apart from this, you may also access IGNOU’s FM radio channel, Gyanvani
(105.6 FM), which is available across many cities in India, for regular
programmes, related to themes on Psychology. You can listen to the live
discussions by faculty and experts on the topic of the day and interact with
them through telephone, email, and through chat mode.
You may also watch Gyandarshan TV channel (free to air educational
channel), for programmes related to topics on Psychology. The schedule
of Gyanvani and Gyandarshan is displayed on www.ignou.ac.in. The radio
and TV channels may also be accessed on Gyandhara, webcast facility for
Gyanvani and Gyandarshan, provided by the University.
Assignments
You will receive a set of assignments for the whole programme. These are
Tutor Marked Assignments, which are to be submitted to the respective
Study Centre after completion. These assignments will be evaluated by an
academic counsellor from your Study Centre. Ensure that you complete all
your assignments because the grades that you get in each of these assignments
are included in the final evaluation of your degree. Before answering the
assignments, read all the Units and additional material (if available).
Guidelines for assignments
While working on an assignment, kindly ensure the following points,
1. Clearly write your Enrollment number.
2. Answer them in your handwriting and in your own words (do not
copy the sentences from the course material or any other source).
3. Write clearly and neatly so that it is easy to read your answers.
4. Leave margins on one side of your answer-sheets so that evaluator
may write his/ her comments on your performance.
5. Organise your answers well based on the question asked.
6. You will submit the assignments at your Study Centre on or before
the date mentioned as per the admission cycle. Kindly check the
dates from www.ignou.ac.in or your Regional Centre website.
Term End Examination (TEE)
Consider the following points while answering TEE.
1. Questions need to be answered in one’s own words and they need to
be focused based on the question asked.
2. Answer the questions keeping in mind the word limit.
3. Organise answers well based on the question asked and also keep in
mind any bifurcation given in the marks.
4. Ensure that you mention correct question numbers for respective
answers.
Preparation of Course Material
The syllabus of course material BPCS 186 is designed by an Expert
Committee (see page 2 of this course) and prepared by Course Preparation
Team which comprises the author(s) of units, content editor(s), language
editor, and the course coordinator. The expert committee selected the themes
and sub-themes of the blocks and units, keeping in view the prescribed
syllabi of UGC (CBCS model). The authors of units have provided their
expertise in elaborating them in the form of the main text of each unit. The
content editor has carefully examined the course contents and has made an
attempt to make the material clear and comprehendible.
For any query or feedback related to the course, you may kindly contact
the Course Coordinator at,
Prof. Suhas Shetgovekar,
Room No. 121, Block-F,
School of Social Sciences,
IGNOU, New Delhi
Email: sshetgovekar@ignou.ac.in
Course Content
BLOCK 1 : INTRODUCTION TO STRESS 11
Unit 1: Stress: An Introduction 13
Concept of Stress 14
Nature of Stress 16
Sources of Stress 19
Measurement of Stress 21
Unit 2: Models of Stress 27
Models of Stress 27
Unit 3: Factors Contributing to Stress Proneness 37
Factors contributing to Stress proneness 38
Moderators of Stress 41
Unit 4: Effect of Stress 47
Effect of Stress on Health 48
Effect of Stress on Performance and Productivity 51
Effect of Stress on Relationship 54
BLOCK 2 : STRESS MANAGEMENT 59
Unit 5: Coping with Stress 61
Definition and Nature of Coping 62
Coping Styles 65
Unit 6: Stress Management Techniques I 73
Relaxation Techniques 74
Meditation 76
Yoga 78
Mindfulness 81
Biofeedback 83
Unit 7: Stress Management Techniques II 89
Cognitive Restructuring 90
Time Management 93
Unit 8: Stress Management Techniques III 101
Interpersonal Skills 102
Problem Solving 109
COURSE INTRODUCTION
Dear Learner,
Managing Stress (BPCS 186) is a 4 credits course offered under Bachelors
Degree Programme of IGNOU. It is Skill Based Elective offered in the IVth
semester.
To provide an overview of this course, the course structure is divided into
two blocks.
Block 1: Block 1 of this course is divided into four Units; Unit 1, 2, 3 and 4.
Unit 1 is titled ‘Stress: An introduction’ and this unit will serve as a basis
to rest of the units that will be covered in this course. The unit will cover
the concept, nature, sources and measurement of stress. Discussion on the
concept and nature of stress will provide a fair idea about the term and will
set a framework for comprehension of other topics and subtopics discussed
in this course. Sources of stress mainly focus on frustration, conflict of
motives and pressure, that can be termed as general sources of stress.
Measurement of stress is relevant and necessary for effective diagnosis
of stress. There are various ways in which stress can be measured. Varied
methods of measurement like physiological measures, psychological tests,
checklist and interview will be discussed under this unit.
Unit 2 will deal with models of stress and will cover the Fight or Flight
response by Cannon, General Adaptation Syndrome put forth by Selye,
Cognitive Appraisal Model by Lazarus and his colleagues, PersonEnvironment Fit Model that was proposed by French, Harrison and Caplan,
Genetic Constitutional Theory and the Diathesis- Stress Model.
Unit three mainly focuses on the factors contributing to stress proneness
including Type A personality, hostility, perfectionism, procrastination and
learned helplessness/ learned pessimism. Various moderators of stress
will also be discussed in this unit. The moderators play an important role
in relationship between the stress and corresponding reactions. These
moderators may lead to individuals experiencing high or low stress. Various
moderators of stress including personality, locus of control, social support,
optimism and pessimism and gender and culture will be covered in the unit.
Unit four will highlight the effect of stress. Mainly the effect of stress on
health, performance and productivity and on relationships will be covered
in this unit.
Block 2: This block constitutes Unit 5, 6, 7 and 8.
Unit 5 is related to coping with stress and covers coping and coping
strategies. In this unit not only the concept of coping will be discussed but
various coping strategies will also be highlighted.
Unit 6, 7 and 8 will cover various stress management techniques. In the
previous block we studied about stress as a concept and in the present block
we will cover how to manage and deal effectively with stress.
Unit 6 will cover relaxation techniques, meditation, Yoga, mindfulness and
biofeedback.
Unit 7 will mainly cover cognitive restructuring and time management.
And Unit 8 will cover interpersonal skills and problem solving.
Some suggestions and tips to enhance your study of this course are as
follows:
• Ensure that the basic concepts, given in this course, are clear. If you
don’t understand the terms, read again. The first unit is a foundation
to rest of the units, so ensure that you read and learn this unit first.
• After you read each section, try to attempt the Check Your Progress
for that section and cross check your answers from Answers to
Check Your Progress given in the later section of the unit. This will
provide you with a feedback on what you have learned and what you
need to further focus on and understand.
BLOCK
1
BLOCK 1 INTRODUCTION TO STRESS
UNIT 1 : Stress: An Introduction 13
UNIT 2 : Models of Stress 27
UNIT 3 : Factors Contributing to Stress Proneness 37
UNIT 4 : Effect of Stress 47
UNIT 1 : STRESS : AN INTRODUCTION*
Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Concept of Stress
1.3 Nature of Stress
1.3.1 Types of Stress
1.3.2 Symptoms of Stress
1.4 Sources of Stress
1.5 Measurement of Stress
1.6 Let Us Sum Up
1.7 References
1.8 Key Words
1.9 Answers to Check Your Progress
1.10 Unit End Questions
1.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, you will be able to:
• explain the concept of stress.
• describe the nature of stress.
• discuss the sources of stress.
• describe measurement of stress.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Nirav was a very studious boy. He pursued MBA and was a topper in his
institute. He was also able to secure a good job as a manager in one of
the leading multinational companies. Nirav was very excited about his
new job. Though, as he started working, his parents and friends started
noticing change in Nirav’s behaviour. He was always irritated, angry,
barely interacted with any one, was not eating and sleeping adequately.
His colleagues also noticed the change in his behaviour as they felt that
otherwise effective and jovial Nirav was becoming secluded and that was
affecting his performance at work.
Samina was eldest child in her family and was a bright student. She wanted
*Prof. Suhas Shetgovekar, Faculty, Discipline of Psychlogy, SOSS, IGNOU
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Introduction to Stress to become a doctor when she grew up. However, her mother fell very sick
and Samina had to leave her studies and take care of her ailing mother and
her three younger siblings. Subsequent to death of her mother, Samina was
not same as before. She started falling sick often and doctors could find no
physiological reasons for her sickness. She also lost interest in her studies
and in fact did not even bother to appear for her examination.
Ravi was sure that he will be promoted to senior manager’s post after this
year’s performance appraisal. He had worked very hard and felt that he
deserved the promotion. However, as the news with regard to promotions
in his department was announced, he was shocked to see that he was not
promoted. Ravi felt very frustrated after this news as he felt that his work
and sincerity were not appreciated by his superiors. He lost interest in his
job and his productivity started declining. The frustration experienced by
him also affected his family relationship and he started having fights with
his spouse. This led to further frustration and anger and Ravi ended up
having a psychological breakdown.
Above are three different examples of individuals who experienced stress
in one way or other in their lives. Nirav was stressed due to the job pressure
that he experienced, with which he was not able to cope, and that had an
impact on his wellbeing. A very negative and tragic life experience of losing
a parent led Samina to experiencing stress that affected her physiological
wellbeing. Stress as a result of frustration experienced by Ravi led him
to become psychologically distressed and experiencing a psychological
breakdown. The three examples also imply that there are various reasons
why a person may experience stress and the symptoms of stress as displayed
by the individuals also vary. Though, one thing can be stated clearly, that is,
if stress is not identified and managed in time or on regular basis it can have
detrimental effects on the individual. His / her finctioring and productivity
will decrease and it can also have a negative impact on the significant people
in his/her life like parents, spouce, children, friends and even colleagues.
Stress has a negative impact on both psychological and physiological well
being of a person and thus needs to be dealt with adequately using suitable
intervention strategies. Though, before the techniques of stress management
are discussed, it is important to understand what is stress, its nature, its
symptoms and sources.
In the present unit we will make an attempt to understand the concept of
stress and will also focus on the symptoms and sources of stress. Further,
measurement of stress will also be discussed.
1.2 CONCEPT OF STRESS
After reading the above examples you may have developed some idea about
what is stress. In the present section of this Unit we will discuss about the
concept and nature of stress so as to develop a better understanding about
this term.
The terms stress has been derived from ‘stringere’ that is a Latin word and
means ‘to draw tight’ (Cox, 1978). It has today become a very commonly
used term in every context whether school, workplace, day to day life
15
and so on. We often come across people who say that they are stressed or Stress: An Introduction
experiencing stress in their lives. We ourselves experience stress often.
The origins of stress can mainly be traced to physical sciences (Schafer,
1998). During the 17th century it was exceedingly used to denote affiliations
and hardships experienced by individuals and during the 18th century it
came to be described mainly in terms of pressure, strain or force (Cartwright
and Cooper, 1997). The initial conceptualisation of stress mainly focused
on stress as an external stimulus. Though later it came to be described as a
response of an individual to certain disturbances. The study carried out by
Cannon can be mentioned in this context, where he mainly studied the fight
and flight reaction. The focus of the study by Cannon was on the effect that
stress has on animals as well as humans. Cannon also observed physiological
changes in the participants of his study and he attributed these changes, as
displayed by individuals, to stress.
Hans Selye (1974) described stress as a response of the body to certain
demand that is made on it and he further stated that this response was nonspecific. Baum et al. (1981) have defined stress as a “process in which
environmental events or forces, called, stressors, threatens an organism’s
existence and wellbeing”.
Schafer (1998, pg. 6) defined stress as “arousal of mind and body in response
to demands made on them”.
Both the above definitions focus on the demand and an individual’s response
to the same. Thus, the onus here is on the response of the individual. Though
the first definition focuses only on body the second definition brings in the
important aspect of mind, implying that stress is a response of both body as
well as mind.
Yet another definition of stress was given by Lazarus and Folkman (1984,
pg. 19). They define stress as “a particular relationship between the person
and the environment that is appraised by the person as taxing or exceeding
his/ her resources and endangering his/ her wellbeing”. This definition
emphasises the relationship between person and the environment, though
here the stress is presented in a negative light, stress is not always negative
and may have its own advantages. Lazarus and Folkman put forth the
transactional model of stress and coping that focuses on how an event is
interpreted or appraised by an individual, which in turn will determine the
stress experienced by the individual. This model highlights that stress and
coping with stress as being interrelated processes.
Truxillo et al. (2016, pg. 440) defined stress as “the body’s reaction to a
change that requires a physical, mental or emotional adjustment or response”.
This definition has further elaborated the response as being physical, mental
or emotional in nature.
The above definitions mainly looked at stress from a western perspective.
If we describe stress from an eastern perspective, it denotes absence or lack
on inner peace (Seaward, 2014). And thus, the stress managing techniques
would also focus on achieving the inner peace.
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Introduction to Stress While discussing the concept of stress it is also important to understand the
term stressor, that can be described as situation, event, person or anything
that leads to the stress response. Gerrig and Zimbardo (2005, pg. 430) defined
stressor as a stimulus event that places a demand on an organism for some
kind of adaptive response”. At a given point of time an individual may have
various stressors in his/ her life. It could be an upcoming official event, an
impending report, examination and so on. Stressors can also be described as
varied external and internal stimuli that may lead to stress. Stressors can be
categorised into physical, psychological, environmental, social and as life
events. Stressors could range from adjusting to change, financial issues and
problems, life events like separation, divorce, illnesses or death of a loved
one, managing varied roles and responsibilities, facing frequent challenging
situations and even technological changes and development. Some of the
stressors that an individual may have in one’s life are shown in figure 1.1.
Fig. 1.1: Showing various Stressors
Check Your Progress I
1) Define Stress
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1. 3 NATURE OF STRESS
Stress as such is like salt and pepper and a life without stress would be
without motivation, as stress often motivates us to work in certain direction.
Thus, without any stress in life, any individual will not be motivated to
perform or carry our varied activities. As, more salt than required can
make food taste bad. In a similar manner, stress beyond optimal level can
have a negative effect on the individual and will interfere with his/ her day
today functioning. When stress experienced exceeds the optimal level of an
individual, the individual may find it exceedingly difficult to cope with it
and it can have detrimental effects on the wellbeing (both psychological and
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physiological) and performance and productivity of the individual. Stress is Stress: An Introduction
not altogether negative and does have numerous advantages.
It is therefore important that stress is managed and is kept below the
optimal level.
In the present section of the Unit, we will discuss about the types and
symptoms of stress.
1.3.1 Types of Stress
Stress can be categorised into different types as follows:
1) Eustress: Stress can be good stress that is explained as ‘Eustress’.
Eustress can be defined as “good stress, caused by a positive response
to a desired stressor, such as a wedding or a new job” (Truxillo et al.
(2016, pg. 441).
2) Neustress: When stress is not helpful nor harmful, it can be described
as ‘Neustress’ (Schafer (1998, pg. 7).
3) Distress: This is the third category of stress that most people
commonly relate stress with. ‘Distress’ occurs when the arousal
experienced by the individual is very high or very low (Schafer
(1998, pg. 8). Distress can also be categorised into acute and chronic
stress. Acute stress can be termed as stress that is intense but does
not last for a prolonged period of time. Whereas, chronic stress may
not be as intense but may exist for a prolonged period of time.
4) Hyperstress: Excessive stress is termed as ‘Hyperstress’.
5) Hypostress: Insufficient stress is termed as ‘Hypostress’.
1.3.2 Symptoms of Stress
Stress can have an impact on various aspects of life that include behaviour,
cognition, emotions as well as physical health. Though stress will have a
different effect on different individuals and each individual will react to
stress in a different way, there are certain symptoms that can be related with
stress. These are discussed as follows:
Physical symptoms: The physical symptoms of stress include low levels
of energy, stomach upset, headaches and migraines, pain and aches, chest
pain, rapid heartbeats, lack of sleep, dryness in mouth, experiencing tension
in muscles, frequent infections and so on.
Emotional symptoms: The emotional symptoms include, displaying
frustration, getting irritated or agitated easily, feelings of worthlessness,
feeling lonely and even depressed.
Psychological symptoms: The cognitive symptoms related to stress include
worrying constantly, experiencing racing thoughts, lack of organisation in
thinking, forgetting, not able to focus, lack of judgement or poor judgement
and also pessimism.
Behavioural symptoms: The behavioural symptoms of stress include
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Introduction to Stress deterioration in performance effectiveness, indulgence in substance use,
prone to accidents, nervous mannerism, poor time management, displaying
checking rituals, changes in appetite, procrastination, eating faster, even
talking or walking faster, impaired speech and so on.
Table1.1: Symptoms of Stress
PHYSICAL PSYCHOLOGICAL EMOTIONAL BEHAVIOURAL
– Rapid Pulse
– Pounding Heart
– Increased
Perspiration
– Tensing of arm
and leg muscles
– Shortness of
breath
– Gritting of teeth
– Headaches
– Indigestion
– Numbness
– Dry mouth
– Pain
– Cold sweat
– Abdominal
cramps
– Feeling upset
– Inability to
concentrate
– Irritability
– Loss of self
confidence
– Worry
– Difficulty in making
decisions
– Racing thoughts
– Absent mindedness
– Anxiety
– Depression
– Anger
– Guilt
– Jealousy
– Shame
– Impatient
– Suicidal
feelings
– Deterioration
in performance
effectiveness
– Smoking or use of
alcohol or other
recreational drugs
– Accident Proneness
– Nervous
Mannerism (foot
tapping, nail biting)
– Increased or
decreased eating/
Anorexia
– Increased or
decreased sleeping/
sleep disruption
– Phobias
– Eating/ walking/
talking faster
– Poor time
management
– Impaired speech
– Checking rituals
Thus, the symptoms of stress can be categorised into the above main four
categories, but it is to be remembered that individual differences do exist in
the symptoms displayed by different individuals.
Check Your Progress II
1) What is neustress?
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2) What are the cognitive symptoms of stress?
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3) Explain the physical symptoms of stress? Stress: An Introduction
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1.4 SOURCES OF STRESS
As we have developed a clear idea about the concept and nature of stress,
we will now move on to the sources of stress.
As such, the sources of stress can be categories in to three main sources,
namely, Frustration, Conflict of motives and Pressure (Coleman, 1970).
Frustration: Frustration can be described as occurring when a goal oriented
behaviour of an individual is thwarted. As stated by Mangal (1984, pg. 46)
“a wide range of environmental obstacles, both physical and social and the
internal factors in the form of personal limitations, biological conditions
and psychological barriers may lead to frustration of our needs, motives and
efforts”. For example, Ravi expected his promotion, however, when he did
not receive the same, he experienced frustration.
Conflict of Motives: The next source is conflict of motives that can cause
stress as an individual has to choose between alternatives and decision
making in this regard can lead to stress. Conflict of motives can be of four
different types, approach – approach conflict, avoidance – avoidance conflict,
approach – avoidance conflict and double approach – avoidance conflict.
1) Approach-approach conflict: In this type of conflict the individual
has to choose between two goals that are positive and are similar.
For example, an individual may have to choose between two similar
job opportunities.
2) Avoidance- avoidance conflict: The next type of conflict of motives
is avoidance- avoidance conflict. Here again there are two goals
that are similar but as opposed to approach- approach conflict, the
goals here are negative. For example, an individual may have to take
decision whether he/ she wants to remain unemployed or take up a
mediocre job that he/ she is not interested in.
3) Approach- avoidance conflict: Here there is a single goal which is
both positive and negative. For example, an individual taking up a
job abroad may be excited about the opportunity but also has to face
the fact that he/ she will have to stay away from the family. Thus,
this goal has both negative and positive consequences and thus the
individual may experience stress.
4) Multiple approach-avoidance conflict: It may so happen that the
conflicts faced by us are quite complex and they are combinations of
approach and avoidance conflicts. In this conflict the individual has
to choose between the options that have both positive and negative
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Introduction to Stress consequences. For example, a student may have to choose between
two educational opportunities, one of pursuing music that he/ she is
interested in which will make his/her parents unhappy and the other
of pursuing engineering, which will make his/ her parents happy but
he/ she is really not interested in it.
Pressure: Pressure is yet another source of stress that can be external or
internal. External pressures are result of demands from the environment,
responsibilities and obligations that are mainly social in nature as well as
demands and expectations of the significant persons in our lives. With
regard to internal pressures, Mangal (1984, pg. 46) states that “Internal
pressures are caused by our own self for maintaining the picture of
ourselves – as we think we could and should be”. An example of external
pressure is when a child is pressurised by parents to do well in examination
and an example of internal pressure is when a child himself/ herself feels
that he/ she needs to study and do well in examination.
Thus, any stress can be categorised into the above three sources, though a
person may experience stress due to more than one or all the three sources
as well.
Besides the above sources, stress can also be as a result of personality
factors that may make an individual prone to stress. Past experiences, basic
temperamental factors, perception of control over the situation causing
stress play an important role in determining the reaction of individual to
stress (Parmeswaran and Beena, 2004). In the context of personality, the
type A and type B personalities can be discussed. Individuals with Type
A personality display hurriedness, restlessness and are often involved in
carrying out various activities at the same time. They are also competitive,
anxious and are often achievement oriented. The individuals with type B
personality, on the other hand, display behaviour that is relaxed. It can
be said that individuals with type A personality are comparatively more
prone to stress when compared with individuals with type B personality
(Parmeswaran and Beena, 2004).
Further, certain life events, like death of a near or dear one, divorce, pregnancy,
child leaving home, change in conditions of living, retirement, marriage,
losing one’s job and so on can also lead to stress (Nolen- Hoeksema, 2009).
Frustration, conflict of motives and pressure can be termed as broad sources
of stress. Though stress can also result due to ineffective interpersonal
relationships or interpersonal conflicts, family related issues, lack of work
life balance, work pressures and work overload and even environmental
pressures that could be due to noise pollution, crowding and so on.
Let us now discuss some of the specific sources of stress.
Life events: Stress can be caused due to varied life events. These could
be death of a loved one, divorce or separation, losing one’s job, marriage
and so on. These could be termed as significant life events in one’s life that
may put pressure on the adjustment and coping resources of the person as
they expose the individual to certain new and unique challenges. Thus, life
events can lead to stress which in turn can have detrimental effects on the
21
day to day functioning as well as physical and psychological health of the Stress: An Introduction
individual.
Daily hassles: Similar to life events, daily hassles can also create stress.
Daily hassles like lack of time, work overload, daily roles, responsibilities
and duties and so on can lead to stress.
Interpersonal relationships: Stress can also be caused due to issues related
to interpersonal relationships. Interpersonal relationships could be in the
context of family, work or it could be with peer groups. Conflicts could
occur between individuals that can have an impact on the interpersonal
relationship, which in turn may lead to stress. Issues in interpersonal
relationship could range from misunderstandings to violence and abuse and
can have negative impact on the physical and psychological wellbeing of
the person.
Stress as a result of social conditions: Social conditions in which the
individual exists can also lead to development of stress. These social
conditions can be related to crowding, discrimination, technological
developments and changes, pollution and so on. The individual today exists
in a world that is much more complex. There is globalisation, increased
competition, and high amount of social pressure. These have a negative
impact on the individual and makes him/ her prone to stress.
Check Your Progress III
1) What is frustration?
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_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
2) Explain stress as a result of social conditions.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
1.5 MEASUREMENT OF STRESS
Measurement of stress is a prerogative for effective diagnosis of stress. There
are various ways in which stress can be measured. These are discussed as
follows:
1) Physiological measures: Physiological measures could serve great
purpose in identifying and understanding stress experienced by an
individual. While discussing the models of stress in the next unit,
we will discuss at length the physiological changes that take place
as the individuals experience stressful situations. The physiological
responses in terms of increase in blood pressure, rapid pulse rate,
breathing rate and so on can be measured to understand the stress
experience by the individual. This can be done by using various
instruments and machines, for instance a Polygraph. Further, stress
can also be measured with the help of biochemical measures, as
hormones, like epinephrine, norepinephrine, cortisol and so on, are
released as stress is experienced. Though, physiological measures
seem to be effective in detecting stress, there are a number of
limitations. Firstly, the physiological changes may occur due to some
other reasons and not stress. Secondly, the whole process of taking
the physiological measure could create stress in the individual, as
either blood test is taken or the individual is plugged to a machine.
Further, the tests could also be costly and time consuming.
2) Psychological tests: A psychological test can be explained as a
measure of sample of behaviour that is objective and systematic in
nature. Various psychological tests that are standardised, reliable and
valid can be used to measure stress. Such psychological tests could
be self-report inventories. In self report inventories, the individual
is expected to provide responses to certain statements and based
on the responses interpretations can be made. One main advantage
of self-report inventory is that the individual will answer them on
his/ her own and as he/ she is in a better position to understand the
stress experienced, he/ she will be able to report adequately. They
are simple, less costly and easy to administer. Though, there could
be issues related to social desirability and language. Individual may
not understand the language in which the test is available or he/ she
may not comprehend certain statements or words.
3) Checklist: A checklist can also be used to measure stress. For
instance, a checklist can be used for major life events. The individual
is asked to check the major life events from a list that the individual
has undergone in a given period of time. The list of major events is
carefully prepared and includes representation of major life events
that may occur in any individual’s life. The major life events could
include, death of a near or dear one, divorce, transfer and so on. Any
major event in one’s life can put pressure on the individual’s coping
resources as he/ she is trying to adapt to the situation. Also, if an
individual is undergoing number of major life events at the same
time, the stress that he/ she will experience is much more.
4) Interview: Yet another method for measurement of stress is
interview, where in-depth information is collected from the
individual face to face. Interview can be structured, unstructured or
semi-structured. Though with the help of interview method a lot of
relevant information can be collected, it is a very time-consuming
method as well as costly. Further, interviewer needs to be adequately
trained in interview methods.
It is also possible that the above methods are used together to get an adequate
picture of stress experienced by the individual.
23
Check Your Progress IV Stress: An Introduction
1) List the limitations of physiological measures.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
2) What is a psychological test?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
1.6 Let Us Sum Up
To summarize, the term stress has been derived from ‘stringere’ that is a
Latin word and means ‘to draw tight’ (Cox, 1978). It has today become
a very commonly used term in every context whether school, workplace,
day to day life and so on. We often come across people who say that they
are stressed or experiencing stress in their lives. We ourselves experience
stress often. Stress is like salt and pepper and a life without stress would be
without motivation. Stress often motivates us to work in a certain direction
and therefore stress is not altogether negative and does have numerous
advantages. Hans Selye (1974) described stress as a response of the body
to certain demand that is made on it and he further stated that this response
was non-specific. Various definitions of stress were also discussed in this
Unit that mainly described stress in terms of demand and an individual’s
response to the same. The concept of stressor was also described that can
be explained as a situation, event, person or anything that leads to the
stress response. Stressors can be categorised into physical, psychological,
environmental, social and as life events. Various types of stress including
eustress, neustress and distress were also discussed in the Unit. The Unit then
moved on to explain the various symptoms of stress that were categorised
into behavioural symptoms, cognitive symptoms, emotional symptoms and
physical symptoms. Further, the sources of stress mainly, frustration, conflict
of motives and pressure were also explained. Lastly, the Unit focused on the
measurement of stress, that is a prerogative for effective diagnosis of stress.
There are various ways in which stress can be measured. Varied methods
of measurement like physiological measures, psychological tests, checklist
and interview were discussed.
1.7 References
Cartwright, S., & Cooper, C. L. (1997). Managing Workplace Stress. New
Delhi: Sage Publications.
24
Introduction to Stress Coleman, J. C. (1970). Abnormal Psychology and Modern Life. Bombay:
D. B. Taraporewala and Sons.
Cox, T. (1978). Stress. London: Macmillan.
Ghosh, M. (2015). Health Psychology: Concepts in Health and Wellbeing.
New Delhi: Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd.
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Fredrickson, B., Loftus, G., & Lutz, C. (2009).
Atkinson & Hilgard’s Psychology An Introduction. United Kingdom:
Cengage Learning.
Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, Appraisal and Coping. New
York: Van Nostrand.
Marks, D. F., Murray, M., Evans, Brian., Willig, C., Woodall, C., & Sykes,
C. M. (2008). Health Psychology: Theory, Research and Practice. New
Delhi: Sage Publications.
Mangal, S. (1984). Abnormal Psychology. New Delhi, India: Sterling
Publishers.
Miner, J. B. (1992). Industrial- Organizational Psychology. New Delhi:
McGraw-Hill Inc.
Parmeswaran, E. G., & Beena, C. (2004). An Invitation to Psychology.
Delhi: Neelkamal Publications Pvt. Ltd.
Pestonjee, D. (1999). Stress and Coping. New Delhi: Sage.
Schafer, W. (1998). Stress Management for Wellness. United States:
Thomson Wadsworth.
Selye, H. (1974). The stress of Life. New York: McGraw-Hill.
1.8 Key Words
Conflict of motives: Conflict of motives is a source of stress that occurs
when an individual has to choose between alternatives and decision making
in this regard can lead to stress in the individual.
Frustration: Frustration can be described as occurring when a goal oriented
behaviour of an individual is thwarted.
Interview: In interview, in-depth information is collected from the
individual face to face.
Pressure: Pressure is a source of stress that can be external or
internal. External pressures are result of demands from the environment,
responsibilities and obligations that are mainly social in nature as well as
demands and expectations of the significant persons in our lives. Internal
pressures are caused by our own self for maintaining the picture of
ourselves- as we think we could and should be.
Psychological test: Psychological test can be explained as a measure of
sample of behaviour that is objective and systematic in nature.
25
Stress: Stress is a particular relationship between the person and the Stress: An Introduction
environment that is appraised by the person as taxing or exceeding his/ her
resources and endangering his/ her wellbeing.
Stressor: Stressor can be described as situation, event, person or anything
that leads to the stress response.
1.9 Answers to Check Your Progress
Check Your Progress I
1.) Define Stress
Hans Selye (1974) described stress as a response of the body to
certain demand that is made on it and he further stated that this
response was non-specific.
Schafer (1998, pg. 6) defined stress as “arousal of mind and body in
response to demands made on them”.
Check Your Progress II
1) What is neustress?
When stress is not helpful nor harmful, it can be described as
neustress
2) What are the cognitive symptoms of stress?
The cognitive symptoms related to stress include worrying
constantly, experiencing racing thoughts, lack of organisation in
thinking, forgetting, not able to focus, lack of judgement or poor
judgement and also pessimism.
3) Explain the physical symptoms of stress?
The physical symptoms of stress include, low levels of energy,
stomach upset, headaches and migraines, pain and aches, chest
pain, rapid heartbeats, lack of sleep, dryness in mouth, experiencing
tension in muscles, frequent infections and so on.
Check Your Progress III
1) What is frustration?
Frustration can be described as occurring when a goal oriented
behaviour of an individual is thwarted.
2) Explain stress as a result of social conditions.
Social conditions in which the individual exists can also lead to
development of stress. These social conditions can be related to
crowding, discrimination, technological developments and changes,
pollution and so on. The individual today exists in a world that is
much more complex. There is globalisation, increased competition,
and high amount of social pressure.
Check Your Progress III
1) List the limitations of physiological measures.
The limitations of physiological measures are as follows:
(a) The physiological changes may occur due to some other
reasons and not stress.
(b) The whole process of taking the physiological measure could
create stress in the individual, as either blood test is taken or
the individual is plugged to a machine.
(c) The tests could also be costly and time consuming.
2) What is a psychological test?
Psychological test can be explained as a measure of sample of behaviour
that is objective and systematic in nature.
1.9 Unit End Questions
1) Explain the concept of stress.
2) Discuss the various types of stress.
3) Explain various symptoms of stress.
4) Describe the sources of stress.
5) Explain various ways in which stress can be measured.
UNIT 2 : MODELS OF STRESS*
Structure
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Models of Stress
2.2.1 Fight or Flight response
2.2.2 General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
2.2.3 Cognitive Appraisal Model
2.2.4 Person- Environment Fit Model (P-E Fit)
2.2.5 Psychodynamic Theory
2.2.6 Genetic Constitutional Theory
2.2.7 Diathesis- Stress Model
2.3 Let Us Sum Up
2. 4 References
2.5 Key Words
2.6 Answers to Check Your Progress
2.7 Unit End Questions
2.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, you will be able to,
• discuss various models of stress.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
To suggest an intervention or treatment for any problem, first of all it is
necessary to comprehend the problem. For instance, if a person has fever,
why the person has fever? Is it a mere flu or Malaria or some other illness?
will determine the treatment plan that the person will receive. In the case
of stress as well, we need to understand what kind of stress the individual
is undergoing, what are its sources and so on. Thus, further probing in to
what is stress is important. In the previous Unit, we discussed about stress, its
concept and nature. Further, we also focused on the sources and measurement
of stress. In the present Unit we will highlight various models of stress that
will help us understand the concept of stress in much better manner.
2.2 MODELS OF STRESS
Various models of stress are discussed as follows:
*Prof. Suhas Shetgovekar, Faculty, Discipline of Psychlogy, SOSS, IGNOU
28
Introduction to Stress 2.2.1 Fight or Flight Response: Cannon initially termed stress as the
emergency response and further elaborated that stress had its source in
fighting emotions (Nelson and Quick, 2012). Cannon put forth the fight
or flight response with regard to stress. According to Cannon stress is an
outcome of an environmental demand that was external and that led to an
imbalance in the natural steady state of an individual. He further stated
that body encompasses natural defence mechanisms that play a role in
maintaining the homeostasis or the natural steady state of an individual.
Cannon was also interested in sympathetic nervous system activation in an
individual when in stressful situation.
Thus, when an individual faces a situation that is threatening, he/ she
will either get ready to fight the threat or may flight or run away from the
situation. The individual will experience certain physiological changes that
gets him/ her ready to fight or flight. These physiological changes include
sweating, dry mouth, tensed muscles and so on. There is also increase in
blood pressure and pulse rate. Besides the breathing may also become rapid
and pupils may widen. Basically, in this moment, the individual’s body will
transfer the energy from body systems that are not required to respond to the
situation to the body systems that are required to function in order to respond
to the situation at hand. The stimulation of sympathetic nervous system and
endocrine system takes place. For instance, if a person suddenly comes
across a snake, his/ her response would be either of fight or flight and in
this case his/ her body will prepare the person for this situation. Thus, there
is a disequilibrium that disturbs the homeostasis of the body. Though, once
the situation is over and there are no more challenges or threats, the body
will go back to normal and homeostasis will be restored. The physiological
changes taking place in fight or flight response can be understood with the
help of figure 2.1.
The flight and fight response is advantageous as it helps deal instantly with
the situation. In a long run, experiences of stress in this manner can have
negative impact on the bodily and affective functioning of a person (Ghosh,
2015).
Fig. 2. 1. : Physiological Changes during fight or flight response
The fight or flight model has also been at the receiving end of criticism
as individual differences may exist in the way people respond to threat
29
situations. For instance, gender difference may exist in the blood pressure Models of Stress
changes experienced during stress (Sanderson, 2013). Further, women
may in fact not display a fight or flight response but may display ‘tend and
befriend’ response that was described by Taylor as a response to stress, that
involves seeking social support during such situations (Sanderson, 2013).
2.2.2 General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS): Hans Selye put forth three
stages that are experienced by an individual when he/ she is in a situation
that is stressful.
Stage one: The first stage is that of ‘alarm reaction’ that is denoted by a
decreased resistance to stress. This stage is similar to that of fight or
flight response. During this stage, the autonomic nervous system and
endocrine system are activated by the hypothalamus. Further, the
epinephrine and norepinephrine are released by the adrenalin glands.
This can be termed as a countershock, where the defence mechanisms of an
individual are activated. These defence mechanisms are activated as a result
of enlargement of adrenocortical that leads to discharge of adrenalin and
thus leading to increase in functions related to respiration and cardiovascular
activities. Thus, similar to fight or flight response, the body is prepared to
face the threatening situation. There is also increase in energy production
that is as a result of cortisol produced by adrenal glands. Adrenal glands
are stimulated by Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) that is released
by the pituitary gland. Similar to fight or flight response, the individual’s
body will transfer the energy from body systems that are not required to
respond to the situation to the body systems that are required to function
as a response to the situation at hand. Thus, functions related to digestion,
immune system and even reproductive system do not receive any energy
during this stage.
Stage two: In the second stage, that is ‘resistance’, the adaptation is
maximum and the equilibrium is restored. During this stage, there is an
adaptation on part of the individual and he/ she resists the stimuli that create
stress, though resistance to other stimuli decreases. During this stage as
well, a lot of energy is required, thus, the nonessential functions related
to digestion, immune system and even reproductive system do not receive
any energy. Thus, the individual continues experiencing physiological
changes such as increased pulse rate and blood pressure, rapid breathing
and so on. These activities are mainly directed towards restoration of the
equilibrium or balance. Though, if the stress is still experienced and the
defence mechanisms are inactive then the individual will experience the
third and last stage. The duration of this stage will depend on the nature,
degree and intensity of the stressor that the individual is exposed to as well
as the condition of the individual when he/ she is exposed to the stressor.
Stage three: The last stage is that of ‘exhaustion’ where there is a collapse
of adaptive mechanisms (Cartwright and Cooper, 1997). Exhaustion occurs
as a result of collapse in adaptation mechanisms and due to decrease in the
physiological resources. When an individual experiences stress for a long
period of time, the individual’s physiological resources deplete and this can
have a negative impact on the physical health of the individual and the
30
Introduction to Stress individual may become susceptible to various illnesses and health related
issues.
Though GAS provides valuable inputs with regard to stress, it does not
focus on the psychological or cognitive reactions to stress (Ghosh, 2015).
Further, researches carried out later on stress also indicated contrary results
with regard to the release of hormones as stated by Selye. The researches
indicated that the release of certain hormones may differ based on the
nature and intensity of the emotions experienced by the individual. Thus,
the difference may exist in the physiological reactions and changes based
on the stressor. Further, the duration of exposure to stressor may also play
a role. In this context, we can also discuss about acute and chronic stress.
Acute stress is for a limited period of time. Example could be an examination
or interview. These may not have significant effect on the individual as
these are met with allostatic response from the body, meaning there are
physiological changes such as increase in blood pressure, release of hormones
and transfer of energy, but as the stressful situation is over, the body will go
to its normal state (Sanderson, 2013). With regard to chronic stress though,
the stress will exist for a longer duration and thus have detrimental effect
on the physiology of the individual experiencing such a stress. Examples
of chronic stress are living in a violent relationship, continued stress due
to work overload and so on. In such a case, there is cumulative stress
experienced by the individual and thus equilibrium is maintained by the
body that leads to certain physiological responses that can negatively affect
the immune system, cardiovascular functioning and will have a negative
impact on health of the individual (Sanderson, 2013). Refer to figure 2.2 for
stages in GAS.
Fig. 2.2: Stages in General Adaptation Syndrome.
2.2.3 Cognitive Appraisal Model: This model relates to the perspective
put forth by Lazarus and his colleagues. Lazarus believed that stress occurs
as a result of an interaction between the individual and the environment.
He also focused on the cognitive appraisal that is carried out by an
individual while determining whether a situation/ event is stressful or
not. He further stated that individual differences exist in the way in which
the cognitive appraisal is carried out. The term cognition denotes various
mental processes like thinking, reasoning and deciding besides attention,
perception, memory, problem solving and creativity (Ghosh, 2015, pg. 113).
The cognitive appraisal model states that as the individual faces a stressful
situation, they carry out appraisal of the situation in terms of primary
appraisal and secondary appraisal. Primary appraisal is done on the basis of
the negative effect of the stress on the physical and psychological aspects of
31
the individual. And secondary appraisal is done on the basis of whether the Models of Stress
individual possesses adequate resources to deal with the stressful situation
and avoid its detrimental effects. Thus, as proposed by this model, the
reaction of an individual, whether physiological, psychological, affective or
behavioural will depend on both primary and secondary appraisals. figure
2.3 explains the cognitive appraisal model.
Fig. 2.3: The Cognitive Appraisal Model
As can be seen in figure 2.3, as an individual faces a stressor, a primary
appraisal is carried out in which whether the stress is a threat or danger or
not is determined. If the stressor is found to be dangerous then secondary
appraisal is carried out in which the resources of the individual are analysed
on the basis of whether they are sufficient or insufficient to deal with the
stress. If the resources are insufficient, stress is experienced which is then
followed by coping and then there is reappraisal of the stressor.
2.2.4 Person- Environment Fit Model (P-E Fit): This model was proposed
by French, Harrison and Caplan in 1982 (Ghosh, 2015). The main assumption
of this model is that individual differences exist with regard to needs and
abilities and stress is created when there is a misfit between the demands
that an individual is exposed to and the resources that he/ she possesses. An
employee who is well prepared for one of the important presentations in
his/ her organisation will look at this as an opportunity and not threat and
thus will not experience any significant stress. But if the demands of the
environment are high and the employee feels that he/ she does not possess
adequate resources or ability to carry out the presentation, then he/ she will
experience stress.
2.2.5 Psychodynamic Theory: The psychodynamic theory also explains
stress. Freud described signal anxiety and traumatic anxiety. Signal
anxiety can be said to occur when an external and objective danger that
is consistent with relationship between stressor and strain is present and
traumatic anxiety is anxiety that occurs within an individual and is related
to the repressed sexual drives and instincts that are aggressive within the
individual (Ghosh, 2015). Traumatic anxiety can lead to development of
psychopathology. And though the anxiety may undergo a process where
the ideas that are conflicting are converted to ideas that pose no harm, the
energy emerging from the conflict may lead to strain in terms of physical
symptoms experienced by the individual.
Further, we can also discuss about the explanation of stress given by
Levinson that is based on the psychoanalytic theory by Freud. According
Resources
are
insufficient
32
Introduction to Stress to Levinson, two main elements of personality, namely, ego ideal and selfimage interact with each other and lead to stress. Ego ideal can be described
as expression of an individual’s perfect self, whereas self-image is the way
an individual perceives himself/ herself (negatively or positively). Stress,
thus, is an outcome of the gap between the ego ideal and self-image. Thus,
this approach mainly focuses on how stress can result due to the unconscious
personality factors in an individual.
2.2.6 Genetic Constitutional Theory: The main focus of this theory is on
how stress is resisted and coped with the help of genotype and phenotype. To
understand the terms genotype and phenotype, genotype denotes the genetic
constitution of individual and phenotype is the physiological characteristics
of the individual (Ghosh, 2015).
2.2.7 Diathesis- Stress Model: The genetic constitutional theory mainly
focuses on how genetic predisposition can make an individual prone to
stress. The diathesis- stress model, on the other hand, focuses on the role
of both genetics and environment in determining whether the individual
will experience stress or not. This theory also proposes that heredity and
environment go hand in hand and compliment each other in determining
stress. For instance, an individual may experience breathing problem when
he/ she is exposed to prolonged high levels of stress. But in absence of any
stress he/ she may not experience any breathing problem, despite of the
breathing problem being genetic in nature.
Check Your progress I
1) Explain Genetic Constitutional Theory.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
2) Complete the figure of physiological changes during fight or flight
response.
2.3 Let Us Sum Up
To summarise, in the present unit we discussed about various models of stress.
The very first model discussed was that of fight or flight response. Cannon
initially termed stress as the emergency response and further elaborated that
stress had its source in fighting emotions. According to Cannon stress was
an outcome of an environmental demand that was external and that led to
an imbalance in the natural steady state of an individual. Thus, when an
individual faces a situation that is threatening, he/ she will either get ready to
fight the threat or may flight or run away from the situation. The individual
will thus experience certain physiological changes that gets him/ her ready
to fight or flight. The model was explained with the help of a figure. The
next model discussed was the General Adaptation Syndrome put forth by
Selye. According to Selye, there are three stages that are experienced by
an individual when he/ she is in a situation that is stressful, namely, alarm
reaction, resistance and exhaustion. These stages were discussed in detail
with the help of a figure. The next model discussed was cognitive appraisal
model. This model is relates to the perspective put forth by Lazarus and his
colleagues. Lazarus believed that stress occurs as a result of an interaction
between the individual and the environment. He also focused on the cognitive
appraisal that is carried out by an individual while determining whether
a situation/ event is stressful or not. The cognitive appraisal model states
that as the individual faces a stressful situation, they carry out appraisal
of the situation in terms of primary appraisal and secondary appraisal.
Primary appraisal is done on the basis of the negative effect of the stress
on the physical and psychological aspects of the individual. And secondary
appraisal is done on the basis of whether the individual possesses adequate
resources to deal with the stressful situation and avoid its detrimental effects.
The next model discussed was the person-environment fit model that was
proposed by French, Harrison and Caplan in 1982 (Ghosh, 2015). The main
assumption of this model is that individual differences exist with regard
to needs and abilities and stress is created when there is a misfit between
the demands that an individual is exposed to and the resources that he/
she possesses. The psychodynamic theory was also discussed. This theory
focuses on signal anxiety and traumatic anxiety and how traumatic anxiety
can lead to development of psychopathology. And though the anxiety may
undergo a process where the ideas that are conflicting are converted to ideas
that pose no harm, the energy emerging from the conflict may lead to strain
in terms of physical symptoms experienced by the individual. The next
model discussed was the genetic constitutional theory. The main focus of
this theory is on how stress is resisted and coped with the help of genotype
and phenotype. Thus, the theory states that how an individual resists stress
will depend on his/ her genetic predisposition. The the last model, that is the
diathesis- stress model focuses on the role of both genetics and environment
on whether the individual will experience stress or not. This theory also
proposes that heredity and environment go hand in hand and compliment
each other in determining stress.
2.4 REFERENCES
Ghosh, M. (2015). Health Psychology: Concepts in Health and Wellbeing.
New Delhi: Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd.
34
Introduction to Stress Marks, D. F., Murray, M., Evans, Brian., Willig, C., Woodall, C & Sykes, C. M.
(2008). Health Psychology: Theory, Research and Practice. New Delhi: Sage.
Nelson, D., & Quick, J. (2012). Organizational Behavior. South-Western
Cengage Learning.
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Fredrickson, B., Loftus, G., & Lutz, C. (2009).
Atkinson & Hilgard’s Psychology An Introduction. United Kingdom:
Cengage Learning.
Lazarus, R. S. & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, Appraisal and Coping. New
York: Van Nostrand. Mangal, S. (1984). Abnormal psychology. New Delhi,
India: Sterling Publishers.
Miner, J. B. (1992). Industrial- Organizational Psychology. New Delhi:
McGraw-Hill Inc.
Parmeswaran, E. G., & Beena, C. (2004). An Invitation to Psychology.
Delhi: Neelkamal Publications Pvt. Ltd.
Pestonjee, D. (1999). Stress and Coping. New Delhi: Sage.
Sanderson, C. (2013). Health Psychology. USA: John Wiley and Sons Inc.
Schafer, W. (1998). Stress Management for Wellness. United States:
Thomson Wadsworth.
Selye, H. (1974). The Stress of Life. New York: McGraw-Hill.
2.5 KEY WORDS
Cognitive Appraisal Model: This model relates to the perspective put
forth by Lazarus and his colleagues. Lazarus believed that stress occurs as a
result of an interaction between the individual and the environment. He also
focused on the cognitive appraisal (primary and secondary appraisal) that is
carried out by an individual while determining whether a situation/ event is
stressful or not.
Diathesis- Stress Model: The diathesis- stress model, focuses on the role
of both genetics and environment on whether the individual will experience
stress or not.
Fight or Flight Response: Proposed by Cannon, fight or flight response
states that when an individual faces a situation that is threatening, he/ she
will either get ready to fight the threat or may flight or run away from the
situation. The individual will thus experience certain physiological changes
that gets him/ her ready to fight or flight.
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS): This was introduced by Selye
and includes three stages that are experienced by an individual when he/
she is in a situation that is stressful, namely, alarm reaction, resistance and
exhaustion.
Genetic Constitutional Theory: The main focus of this theory is on how
stress is resisted and coped with the help of genotype and phenotype. The
35
genetic constitutional theory mainly focuses on how genetic predisposition Models of Stress
can make an individual prone to stress.
Person- Environment Fit Model (P-E Fit): This model was proposed by
French, Harrison and Caplan in 1982 (Ghosh, 2015). The main assumption
of this model is the individual differences exist with regard to needs and
abilities and stress is created when there is a misfit between the demands
that an individual is exposed to and the resources that he/ she possesses.
Psychodynamic Theory: The psychodynamic theory also explains stress,
in which Freud described signal anxiety and traumatic anxiety. Signal
anxiety can be said to occur when an external and objective danger that
is consistent with relationship between stressor and strain is present and
traumatic anxiety is anxiety that occurs within an individual and is related
to the repressed sexual drives and instincts that are aggressive within the
individual.
2.6 Answers to Check Your Progress
Check Your progress I
1) Explain Genetic Constitutional Theory.
The main focus of this theory is on how stress is resisted and coped
with the help of genotype and phenotype. The theory states that how an
individual resists stress will depend on his/ her genetic predisposition.
2) Complete the figure of physiological changes during fight or flight response.
2. 7 Unit End Questions
1) Explain the Fight or Flight response.
2) Discuss the General Adaptation Syndrome with the help of a diagram.
3) Discuss in detail Cognitive Appraisal model.
4) Describe the Person-Environment fit model of stress.
Unit 3 : FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO STRESS
PRONENESS*
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Factors contributing to Stress Proneness
3.2.1 Type A Personality
3.2.2 Hostility
3.2.3 Perfectionism
3.2.4 Procrastination
3.2.5 Learned Helplessness/ Learned Pessimism
3.3 Moderators of Stress
3.4 Let Us Sum Up
3.5 References
3.6 Key Words
3.7 Answers to Check Your Progress
3.8 Unit End Questions
3.0 Objectives
After reading this unit, you will be able to
• explain the factors contributing to stress proneness
• discuss the moderators of stress.
3.1 Introduction
Shalini would fall sick every time she had her school examinations. She
would prepare very hard and try to learn all the relevant topics, but one day
before the examinations, she would fall sick with either fever or stomach
upset or some other illness, as a result of which she would not be able to
answer her examinations. When a medical doctor was consulted, the Doctor
could not find any medical reason. Shalini’s cousin who was a clinical
psychologist suspected that the reason could be psychological rather than
physiological and that Shalini could be falling sick because of stress that
she was experiencing before the examination.
You as well may have come across certain individuals who are more prone
to stress and those who are not so prone to stress. Thus, it can be said that
individual differences exist in the way people deal with stress and some
could be more prone to stress than others due to varied factors.
*Prof. Suhas Shetgovekar, Faculty, Discipline of Psychlogy, SOSS, IGNOU
In the previous Units, we discussed about the concept, nature, and
measurement of sources of stress (Unit 1) as well as various models of
stress (Unit 2). In the present unit we will discuss about stress proneness
and will also focus on the factors contributing to stress proneness as well as
the moderators of stress.
3.2 Factors Contributing To Stress proneness
Let us try to first understand what is stress proneness. Stress proneness
in simple words can be described as a tendency of a person to take more
stress. Such individuals are more likely than others to experience stress. The
opposite of stress proneness is stress resistant and such individuals are less
likely to experience stress.
Let us now look at some of the factors that can contribute to stress proneness:
3.2.1 Type A Personality
Schafer (2004, pg. 178) describes personality as “person’s enduring set
of habits of thinking, feeling and acting”. Personality traits can be said to
determine not only the way an individual reacts to stress but also how he/
she will cope with the stressful situation. Type A personality is often linked
to high levels of stress as individuals with type A personality perceive stress
as threatening and their reactions to stressful situations are intense and
faster. On the other hand, individuals with type B personality display lower
stress reactivity. Thus, individuals with type A personality are more prone
to varied physical and psychological problems that may occur as a result of
stress experienced by them.
Let us discuss further about type A personality, that can be termed as one
of the factors that can make an individual more prone to stress. Individuals
with this type of personality are in a hurry to achieve certain objectives.
They often like competition, they are highly alert and display perfectionism.
They want to achieve much more than it may be possible within a certain
time frame. Such individuals are also likely to be irritable, they lack patience
and may also get angry faster. Some of the components of type A behaviour
as stated by Schafer (2004) are as follows:
Status insecurity: Individuals with type A behaviour may display status
insecurity, which is likely to stem from low self-esteem. Such individuals
will constantly compare themselves with others and will find themselves to
be inferior in their own eyes. They are also constantly striving to enhance
their self-esteem. These individuals often have a very high expectation from
themselves and are also highly critical about self. This will often drive them
to achieve and accomplish as much as possible.
Urgency of time: The insecurities and low self-esteem experienced by a
person with type A personality often leads him/her to gasp with time. Such
individuals want to do many things within a certain period of time. Thus,
they are in constant hurry to get things done and as a result they think faster,
plan faster and carryout activities at a faster pace and this can be reflected
in their day to day functioning as well. They also engage in polyphasic
thinking and behaviour, that can be described as engaging in thinking and
carrying out multiple activities/ things at a time (Schafer, 2004).
Hyper-aggressiveness: Individuals with type A personality may also display
hyper-aggressiveness that is denoted by dominating behaviour without any
regard to how others feel or any regard for their rights. This aggressiveness
may also stem from low self-esteem that such individuals experience and
due to the frustration experienced by them.
Free-floating hostility: An individual with type A personality is more
likely to perceive others negatively and thus will not trust others and will
be suspicious of them. This free-floating hostility is displayed by such an
individual whenever he/ she feels something (coworkers laughing, slow
sales person at a shop counter, directives by government and so on) is wrong.
Drive towards self-destruction: The lifestyle led by a type A individual
can take a toll on them and they often seek escapism and thus in a way they
may drive themselves on the path of self-destruction.
Individuals with type A are not only more prone to stress, as was mentioned
earlier, but they may display lower satisfaction with regard to job, health,
home and life. They may also experience lack of energy and may experience
more affective tension and symptoms of distress.
3.2.2 Hostility
Schafer (2004, pg. 194) described hostility as “cynicism towards others’
motives and values, easily and frequently aroused anger, and a tendency to
express that anger towards others.” Hostility in this context does not relate
to anger that leads to violent behaviour. But this is the irritability and anger
experienced by individuals who otherwise seem perfectly normal (Schafer,
2004). Such a hostility may be experienced in simple events in life, like
someone spills tea on the office table, a family member does not fold clothes
and they are left in the sitting chair and so on, for which individuals who
are not hostile may barely react. Such individuals often engage in blaming
others, which in turn can make them express anger towards that individual,
which could lead to aggressive behaviours directed towards that person.
Hostility is, thus, characterised by an attitude that is skeptical or cynical,
recurring arousal of anger and manifestation of anger in terms of aggressive
behaviour. The long-term effect of such hostility is negative as it not only
affects one’s health but can also affect one’s social relationships. Links have
been found between hostility and stress (Felsten,1996; Hackett et al, 2015).
Thus, hostility can also be termed as a factor that can make individuals more
prone to stress.
3.2.3 Perfectionism
Yet another factor that can lead to stress proneness is perfectionism.
Perfectionism can be described as expectations that an individual may
have from self and others or both and these expectations are demanding
in nature which seldom leaves chance for compromise. Perfectionism can
be categorised into internal perfectionism (expectations from self) and
external perfectionism (expectations from others). Individuals with internal
perfectionism will have high expectations from themselves and this can not
only affect their health but also their productivity. It can also negatively
affect their relationship and self-esteem. Individuals who have external
perfectionism will often find fault with others and are never satisfied with
how others work and this can lead them to experiencing frustration as well
as hostility.
Following are some of the beliefs that are characteristic of an individual
with perfectionism (Schafer, 2004):
• Anything that I do should be carried out perfectly.
• No mistakes should be made by me or others.
• There is always a correct way in which things should be done.
• I am failure if I don’t do things perfectly.
• If I make a mistake, I am a total failure.
Such beliefs (all or nothing) can be termed as irrational as they are loaded
with injunctions and they can push an individual on the path of distress.
An individual having such beliefs is more likely to experience stress than a
person with rational beliefs. For instance, an individual who believes, that
if he/ she makes a single mistake then he/ she is a failure will experience
prolonged sadness and anger with self and may not make any attempts in
future. However, an individual who sees a mistake as a learning experience
is more likely to make attempts in future and less likely to experience stress
or anger. Besides experiencing stress, individuals with perfectionism are
also more likely to procrastinate. They are also more defensive and choosy
about stuff and things. Further, they may find it difficult to let go and discard
things, thus leading to hoarding and they may also indulge in overdoing
things.
3.2.4 Procrastination
We discussed earlier that perfectionism may lead to procrastination, but
procrastination in itself is also a factor that could lead to stress proneness.
Procrastination can simply be described as not doing things/ activities on
time and keeping them for later. This can be because the things or those
activities are viewed as not appealing/ pleasant or difficult. Procrastination
can lead to stress because individuals who procrastinate will not only feel
guilty and indulge in condemnation of self, but there could also be external
repercussions (for example, examination fee not paid in time, delay in
submitting an important report and so on). Procrastination either results from
fear (for instance fear of failure or doing well or fear of pain or intimacy and
so on), or it can result from laziness, where the individual develops habit of
not putting effort or seeking comfort (Schafer, 2004).
3.2.5 Learned Helplessness/ Learned pessimism
The term learned helpless was put forth by Seligman and it can be described
as tendency to become helpless when frequently faced with events that
cannot be controlled. Schafer (2004, pg. 215) defines learned pessimism
as “the tendency to interpret bad events as personally caused, part of a
permanent pattern, and pervasive into all parts of one’s life and the tendency
to interpret positive events as caused by luck or external forces, temporary,
and limited to this one aspect”. The key points in this definition are:
Personalisation: Personalisation can be internal or external. Thus, when
a negative event or situation is experienced, the individual will attribute
it internally or externally. For instance, getting less marks in examination
may be attributed internally (not studying hard enough) or externally (unfair
evaluation).
Permanence: Permanence can be in terms of either permanent or
temporary. The individual will either perceive the event as being permanent
or temporary. For instance, if he/ she scored less marks in an examination,
this can either be seen as something that will always happen or as just one
event or setback in path of success.
Pervasiveness: This can be described as whether an interpretation is related
to one or multiple dimension(s) of life. Thus, it can be either universal or
specific. For instance, ‘I scored less marks in one subject but scored well in
others’ or ‘Getting less marks is yet another negative event in my life’.
A person with learned helplessness/ learned pessimism is more prone to
experiencing stress and needs help to move towards learned optimism.
Check Your Progress I
1) List the components of type A behaviour.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
2) What is procrastination?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
3.3 Moderators of Stress
Besides the above factors, there are also certain moderators of stress that need
to be mentioned. The moderators play an important role in the relationship
between the stress and corresponding reactions. These moderators may lead
to individuals experiencing higher or lower stress.
Locus of control (LOC): Locus of control is a concept that was proposed
by Rotter in 1954 and can be explained as the belief system possessed by
an individual with regard to whether the outcome of his/ her actions can be
attributed to his/ her own actions or to events, objects, people outside his/ her
control. Thus, individuals could either have an internal control orientation
or an external control orientation. Relationship has been seen between LOC
and stress and it was found that individuals with internal locus of control
displayed better physical and psychological wellbeing (Ghosh, 2015).
Individuals with internal locus of control perceive stressful situations as a
challenge and not as a threat and thus are in a position to deal with stress in
a better way.
Hardiness: Hardiness can be described as denoting a likeness for challenges,
having a strong sense of commitment and control (Schafer, 2004, pg. 236).
Individuals having high hardiness are optimistic and they see a stressful
situation as an opportunity to grow. They also put in hard work because they
enjoy doing so. Thus, individuals with high hardiness are in better position
to deal with stress than individuals that have low hardiness.
Social support: This is one of the significant moderators of stress. A person
experiencing stress will be able to deal with it in a better way if he/ she has
adequate social support. Social support can be in form of material gifts,
finance, food and so on, or in terms of information to comprehend the stress
and coping strategies. Social support could also be emotional in nature.
Social support not only lowers stress reactivity but individuals receiving
social support are also less likely to suffer the negative effects of stress.
Optimism and pessimism: Optimistic individuals are found to be able to
deal with stress adequately and thus may not get adversely affected by stress
that they experience. Optimism can also be related to resilience that helps
individuals to bounce back from stressful situations. On the other hand,
individuals who are pessimistic can get affected by stress and are likely to
develop the psycho-physiological disorders.
Gender and culture: Besides the above gender and culture may also play
an important role as moderators of stress. Socialisation to a great extent may
depend on gender as well as culture that can have an impact on not only the
personality but also beliefs and attitudes of the individual. And personality,
beliefs and attitudes can have an impact on how individual perceives, deals
and copes with stress.
Check Your Progress II
1) What is locus on control?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
3.4 Let Us Sum Up
Individual differences exist in the way people deal with stress and some could
be more prone to stress than others due to varied factors. Stress proneness in
simple words can be described as a tendency of a person to experience more
stress. Such individuals, are more likely than others to experience stress. The
opposite of stress proneness is stress resistant and such individuals are less
likely to experience stress. Various factors that contribute to stress proneness
like type A personality, hostility, perfectionism, procrastination and learner
43
Factors Contributing
to Stress Proneness
helplessness/ learned pessimism were discussed. Type A personality is often
linked to high levels of stress as individuals with type A personality perceive
stress as threatening and their reactions to stressful situations are intense
and faster. Some of the components of type A behaviour include status
insecurity, urgency of time, hyper-aggressiveness, free-floating hostility
and drive towards self-destruction. Hostility can be described as cynicism
towards others’ motives and values, easily and frequently aroused anger, and
a tendency to express that anger towards others. The long-term effect of such
hostility is negative as it not only affects one’s health but can also affect one’s
social relationships and links have also been found between hostility and
stress. Yet another factor that can lead to stress proneness is perfectionism.
Perfectionism can be described as expectations that an individual may
have from self and others or both and these expectations are demanding in
nature which seldom leaves chance for compromise. Perfectionism can be
categorised into internal perfectionism (expectations from self) and external
perfectionism (expectations from others). Procrastination is also a factor that
could lead to stress proneness. Procrastination can simply be described as
not doing things/ activities on time and keeping them for later. The last factor
discussed was learned helplessness/ learned pessimism. Learned pessimism
can be described as the tendency to interpret bad events as personally caused,
part of a permanent pattern, and pervasive into all parts of one’s life and the
tendency to interpret positive events as caused by luck or external forces,
temporary, and limited to this one aspect. The key points of this definition
include personalisation, permanence and pervasiveness. While discussing
factors contributing to stress proneness, the moderators of stress were
also discussed. The moderators play an important role in the relationship
between the stress and corresponding reactions. These moderators may lead
to individuals experiencing higher or lower stress. Various moderators of
stress including, locus of control, social support, optimism and pessimism
and gender and culture were explained.
3.5 References
Felsten, G. (1996). Hostility, Stress and Symptoms of Depression. Personality
and Individual Difference, 21 (4), 461 – 467. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-
8869(96)00097-9
Ghosh, M. (2015). Health Psychology: Concepts in Health and Wellbeing.
New Delhi: Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd.
Hackett, R. A., Lazzarino, A. I., Carvalho, L. A., Hamer, M., & Steptoe,
A. (2015). Hostility and Physiological Responses to Acute Stress in people
with Type 2 Diabetes. Psychosomatic Medicine, 77(4): 458 – 466. Published
online 2015 May 14. Doi: 10.1097/PSY.0000000000000172
Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, Appraisal and Coping. New
York: Van Nostrand.
Marks, D. F., Murray, M., Evans, Brian., Willig, C., Woodall, C., & Sykes,
C. M. (2008). Health Psychology: Theory, Research and Practice. New
Delhi: Sage.
44
Introduction to Stress Mangal, S. (1984). Abnormal Psychology. New Delhi, India: Sterling
Publishers.
Parmeswaran, E. G., & Beena, C. (2004). An Invitation to Psychology.
Delhi: Neelkamal Publications Pvt. Ltd.
Pestonjee, D. (1999). Stress and Coping. New Delhi: Sage.
Sanderson, C. (2013). Health Psychology. USA: John Wiley and Sons Inc.
Schafer, W. (1998). Stress Management for Wellness. United States:
Thomson Wadsworth.
3.6 Key Words
Hardiness: Hardiness can be described as denoting a likeness for challenges,
having a strong sense of commitment and control.
Hostility: Hostility can be described as cynicism towards others’ motives
and values, easily and frequently aroused anger, and a tendency to express
that anger towards others.
Learned pessimism: Learned pessimism can be described as the tendency
to interpret bad events as personally caused, part of a permanent pattern, and
pervasive into all parts of one’s life and the tendency to interpret positive
events as caused by luck or external forces, temporary, and limited to this
one aspect.
Locus of control (LOC): Locus of control can be explained as the belief
system possessed by an individual with regard to whether the outcome of
his/ her actions can be attributed to his/ her own actions or to events, objects,
people outside his/ her control.
Perfectionism: Perfectionism can be described as expectations that an
individual may have from self and others or both and these expectations are
demanding in nature which seldom leave chance for compromise.
Procrastination: Procrastination can simply be described as not doing
things/ activities on time and keeping them for later.
Type A personality: Individuals with this type of personality are in a hurry
to achieve certain objectives. Individuals with this personality often like
competition, they are highly alert and display perfectionism. They want to
achieve much more than it may be possible within a certain time frame.
Such individuals are also likely to be irritable, they lack patience and may
also get angry faster.
3.7 Answers to Check Your Progress
Check Your Progress I
1) List the components of type A behaviour.
The components of type A behaviour include status insecurity,
urgency of time, hyper-aggressiveness, free-floating hostility and
drive towards self-destruction.
2) What is procrastination?
Procrastination can simply be described as not doing things/ activities
on time and keeping them for later.
Check Your Progress II
1) What is locus on control?
Locus of control is a concept that was proposed by Rotter in 1954 and
can be explained as the belief system possessed by an individual with
regard to whether the outcome of his/ her actions can be attributed
to his/ her own actions or to events, objects, people outside his/ her
control.
3.8 Unit End Questions
1) Discuss Type A personality as a factor contributing to stress proneness.
2) Explain hostility as a factor contributing to stress proneness.
3) Describe perfectionism and procrastination as factors contributing to
stress proneness.
4) Discuss learned helplessness/ learned pessimism.
5) Discuss the various moderators of stress
UNIT 4 : EFFECT OF STRESS*
Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Effect of Stress on Health
4.3 Effect of Stress on Performance and Productivity
4.4 Effect of Stress on Relationships
4.5 Let Us Sum Up
4.6 References
4.7 Key Words
4.8 Answers to Check Your Progress
4.9 Unit End Questions
4.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, you will be able to,
• discuss the effect of stress on health.
• describe the effect of stress on performance and productivity.
• explain the effect of stress on relationships.
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Sameer’s parents always had very high expectations from him. They wanted
him to become an IAS officer. Though Sameer was more interested in
pursuing his interest in music. He was an excellent guitar player. But giving
in to the pressures of his parents he started preparing for the civil servies
examination. He tried to put in his best but over the period of time, he
experienced fatigue, sleeplessness and also lost his appetite. He also started
falling sick more often. Medical doctors could not find any physical cause
for the symptoms displayed by Sameer. The stress (caused due to external
pressure as well as conflict that he had in his mind with regard to pursuing
his interest in music or becoming an IAS officer as per his parents wish)
experienced by him had taken a toll on his health.
Tiska had recently been promoted to the post of deputy director of her
institute. She was very excited about her new position. Though, the new
position meant more responsibilities and workload. Despite of trying to
put in her best, she felt that her immediate superior never seemed to be
happy with her and would always find faults in her work. Tiska became
increasingly irritable, would easily get angry with her subordinates and
*Prof. Suhas Shetgovekar, Faculty, Discipline of Psychlogy, SOSS, IGNOU
48
Introduction to Stress colleagues and her interpersonal relationship with her family and friends
was getting affected due to her behaviour. She also started experiencing
breathing problems and was diagnosed with high blood pressure. The
work pressure coupled with continuous criticisms and lack of appreciation
from her immediate superior had affected the physical and psychological
wellbeing of Tiska.
In the above examples, we can see that stress and stressful situations had an
impact on the physical and psychological health of these individuals. The
examples discussed earlier also reflect that there are individual differences
in the way each individual will react to stress. You may have come across
children who get so stressed before exams that they fall sick and children
who do not experience much stress. Further, difference may also exist in
the effect that stress has on the individuals. For instance, some may get
affected psychologically, whereas, others may display more of physiological
symptoms related to stress.
In the previous Units, that is Units one, two and three, we discussed about
the concept, nature, sources, symptoms, and measurement of stress and even
models of stress. We also discussed about various factors that contribute to
stress proneness. Thus, by now you must have developed a fair idea about
what stress is. In the present Unit, we will mainly focus on the effect of
stress. Stress can affect individuals in different ways. In some individuals
it may have an impact on their physical health and in others it may affect
their psychological wellbeing. Thus, understanding the effect of stress is
relevant. In the present Unit, we will mainly discuss about the effect of
stress on health, performance and productivity and relationships. Needless
to say, all these three are interrelated and the effect of stress on one of these
can affect the other(s) as shown in figure 4.1. For instance, if a person falls
sick often due to stress then his/ her productivity will decrease. Any issue
that the person faces in relationship can lead to development of stress and
that can have an impact on his/ her performance and productivity.
Fig. 4.1: Effects of stress are interrelated.
4.2 EFFECT OF STRESS ON HEALTH
Stress has an impact on the physical health of an individual. A number of
illnesses like cardiovascular disorders, aches and pain, ulcers, hypertension,
diabetes, asthma, hyperthyroidism, and even cancer can be attributed to
stress.
49
Stress can have an impact on the immune system of the individual and thus Effect of Stress
the individual may become easily prone to varied infections and illnesses.
Stress can also accelerate ageing. When an individual is experiencing stress,
the resources and energy is diverted from immune system to systems in
the body that play more important role in stress reactivity (as was also
discussed under fight and flight response and GAS) and thus, individuals
who experience stress for long period of time are prone to develop infections
as their immune system is compromised.
Stress can lead to development of cardiovascular disorders in individuals.
When there is perception of stress, one of the physiological changes that
occurs is that pulse rate increases as well as there is an increase in the blood
pressure. As such the heart tends to be on a rapid mode and works harder
when stress is experienced. A stress for a long period of time will have the
heart working overtime for a longer period of time and that can lead to
development of cardiovascular disorders. Further, lifestyle of the individual,
including diet and nutrition, physical exercise, consumption of alcohol and
drugs and so on can also contribute to the development of such disorders.
Prolonged stress can also cause hypertension as sympathetic nervous
system gets activated and blood pressure increases and remains increased
for a longer period of time. And prolonged hypertension can again lead to
development of cardiovascular disorders and could also lead to stroke and
kidney related disorders. Glucose and fatty acids may also accumulate if
an individual has hypertension for a long period of time and that in turn
could lead to plaques in the artery. Further, the release of Catecholamine
and Corticosteroid that take place when an individual is undergoing stress
(this was discussed under fight or flight responses), can also have a negative
impact on the arteries and heart.
We sometimes come across children who develop stomach upset before
examination. This could also be attributed to stress experienced by them.
As a result of prolonged stress, an individual could also develop ulcers,
irritable bowel syndrome and inflammatory bowel diseases. Activation of
sympathetic nervous system that takes place when stress is experienced
could lead to excess production of the hydrochloric acid and pepsin which
in turn could lead to peptic ulcers.
Stress is one of the factors that can also lead to individuals developing
asthma. Asthma is denoted by breathing problem that occurs when the
bronchial airways are blocked. This blockage could be due to mucus,
inflation or spasms (Ghosh, 2015).
Prolonged stress could also lead to occurrence of cancer amongst the
individuals. Migraine are headaches that an individual may experience for
a prolonged period of time that occurs on one side of the head. Stress is
one of the factors that can cause migraines in individuals. Stress also has a
negative effect on the immune system.
Stress can also cause hyperthyroidism, as experiencing stress for a prolonged
period of time can negatively affect thyroid, the gland that is responsible
for metabolism as well as regulation of various physiological functions.
Stress can not only affect the release of hormone from pituitary gland, that
stimulates thyroid, but also reduces the conversion to T3 hormone, that is,
Triiodothyronine (Lutz, 2019). Thus, the functioning of the thyroid can get
affected. Various hormones are also released as stress is experienced and
this can lead to increased levels of glucose in blood.
Further, stress can also cause anxiety and depression. When stress is
experienced by an individual, there is a release of neurotransmitters (the
chemicals that transmit signal between the neurons) Serotonin and Adrenalin.
After the release of these neurotransmitters, stress related hormones are
released and these can have an impact on area of brain relevant to memory
and regulation of affect. When stress is experienced by an individual for a
prolonged period of time, then there is a negative effect on the way these
systems function and as a result the individual is prone to developing
anxiety and depression. Further, depression can also be linked to extended
activation of immune system, that is a result of stress experienced by an
individual over a period of time (Crannage, 2018).
Extreme stress can also lead to development of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder
(PTSD). PTSD may develop in an individual after he/ she experiences a
traumatic situation. You must have heard about soldiers developing PTSD
after a war or individuals developing PTSD after experiencing a natural
calamity like earthquake or Tsunami. The symptoms of PTSD include
flashbacks and uncontrollable thoughts about the traumatic event. This again
has been linked to the disruption of functioning of stress related hormones
and neurotransmitters that are normally released after stress is experienced
(Crannage, 2018).
Stress can also lead to indulgence of the individual in unhealthy coping
behaviour which can also involve substance use (alcohol, drug and so on).
This in turn can not only lead to addiction but can have detrimental effect on
health. Besides a person under stress may also engage in unhealthy lifestyle,
like they may not exercise, maintain healthy diet and may even indulge in
unhealthy eating behaviours.
Thus, it can be said that stress can have a negative effect on one’s physical
health as well as mental health. Further, it can also impact one’s lifestyle and
behaviour which in turn have adverse effects on one’s overall health.
Check Your progress I
1) List any five illnesses that can be attributed to stress.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________
2) How can stress lead to development of cardiovascular disorders in
individuals?
_______________________________________________________
4.3 EFFECT OF STRESS ON PERFORMANCE AND
PRODUCTIVITY
When we talk about performance and productivity, it could be overall
performance and productivity of the individual and it could also be
performance and productivity in the context of work. Before we go on
to discuss performance and productivity in the context of work, let us
discuss about how stress can impact cognitive functioning, that is a key to
performance and productivity.
Stress can have a negative impact on cognitive functioning or performance
of the individual, which can be for a short term or for long period of time. In
fact, stress experienced over a long period of time may even lead to decline
in cognitive functioning and is also linked to occurrence of dementia (Scott
et al, 2015).
Prolonged stress can affect memory, attention and concentration of the
individual. Individuals experiencing stress may also display ineffective
decision making. Stress can also lead to worrying constantly, forgetting, lack
of organisation, lack of judgement, racing thoughts and being pessimistic
and all these in turn can have an impact on the overall performance and
productivity of the individual.
Stress has a negative effect on the executive functioning of an individual
that includes tasks like making plans, reasoning, management of one’s
life, problem solving and so on. And this can be attributed to the overload
that is created by stress, where the resources of the individual are diverted
towards coping with stress. Thus, an individual under stress may not be able
to remember well, indulge in effective problem solving and may not be able
to pay his/ her complete attention.
When an individual is experiencing stress, his/ her cognitive performance
as well as ability to make decisions can get negatively affected. When
experiencing stress the peripheral stimuli may be screened out by the
individual and he/ she may indulge in decision making that is based on
heuristics. Individuals under stress may also experience rigidity in their
performance and display thinking pattern that is narrow. Under stress,
individuals may also not be able to indulge in analysing complex situations
or carry out manipulation of information (Kavanagh, 2005).
Stress that is experienced in day to day life can also result in negative
mood that is experienced by the individual, which in turn may lead to the
individual experiencing fatigue, which can further affect his/ her ability to
pay attention (Scott et al, 2015).
While discussing about relationship between stress and performance, the
hypothesis related to the inverted- U can be discussed. Inverted- U is also
called as Yerkes-Dodson Law that denotes relationship between arousal and
performance. It was put forth by Robert Yerkes and John Dillingham Dodson
in 1908. The diagrammatic representation of Inverted – U is given in figure
4.2. As can be seen in the figure as the stress increases, the performance also
increases, however at certain point where stress continues to increase, the
performance is affected and goes down. Thus, it can be said that stress plays
an important role in performance, but as it goes beyond certain optimal
level, the performance will get negatively affected.
Fig. 4.2: Inverted – U
Thus, stress can affect one’s performance and productivity in varied spheres
of life including academics, workplace and so on.
As discussed earlier, stress can have an impact on cognitive functioning,
even leading to its decline. Students experiencing stress as well can
experience such a decline in cognitive functioning and may not be able
to pay attention to the subject matter and may also forget what they have
learned. You must have seen this especially as a result of examination stress.
The students may not be able to answer the examination well because they
could not recall the information. And such students will not only experience
stress from academics but they may face various stressors from different
sources, for instance, pressure from parents, teachers and significant others,
internal pressure to do well, stress due to competition and uncertainty about
future and so on. All this can not only impact their health but also their
cognitive functioning leading to detrimental impact on their performance
and productivity.
Let us discuss about how stress can have an impact on performance and
productivity at workplace. When employees experience stress for a longer
period of time, the outcome could be affective exhaustion, decreased
organisational commitment and higher turnover amongst the employees
(Kavanagh, 2005). Decreased performance, job dissatisfaction and even
absenteeism can be related with stress (Miner, 1992). Most often individuals
under stress take more time to complete a task than an individual not
experiencing stress. Individuals experiencing stress may also display poor
time management. This is especially true when stress experienced is above
the optimal level of the individual, thus he/ she is not able to cope well Effect of Stress
and this can interfere with the way he/ she manages time. Inability to
manage time and complete work as per deadlines can further cause stress.
Such individuals may also display lack of punctuality which can cost the
organization man-hours. Individuals experiencing stress may also remain
absent from jobs for extended period of time (absenteeism). This could
mainly be because of the negative impact that the stress can have on their
physical and mental health.
Individuals under stress may also not be able to focus on their work
activities and this again can affect the productivity and even cause
accidents, especially, if the individuals’ work activity involves working with
machinery/ chemicals and so on.
Stress can also have a negative impact on teamwork and ability of
individuals to function in groups (Kavanagh, 2005). Communication can
also get hampered when individuals are under stress and the likelihood of
individuals being prone to groupthink is also high. As a result of groupthink,
the members of a group may reach a consensus decision which may not be
correct or rational. Thus, stress can have a negative effect on interactions
and relationships at workplace, which in turn can affect team work.
Employees may also experience technostress, stress that is experienced due
to lack of ability to cope with advances in technology. Technostress can
also negatively affect performance and productivity, not only because the
individual is not able to understand the technology but also because his
work goals and activities can get affected causing frustration.
In this context, we also need to discuss about yet another term that
is ‘Burnout’. Pestonjee (1999, pg. 23) defined burnout as “the end of
stress experienced but not properly coped with, resulting in symptoms
of exhaustion, irritation, ineffectiveness, discounting of self and others
and problems of health (hypertension, ulcers and heart problem)”. The
employees thus can experiences BOSS, that is Burnout Stress Syndrome.
Development of BOSS in an individual could lead to decrease in energy
level of the individual, decreased illness resistance, experiencing heightened
dissatisfaction and pessimism as well besides lack of efficiency in carrying
out one’s work and also absenteeism (Pestonjee, 1992).
Thus, it can be said that stress can have a negative impact on the work life of
the individual. Not only the quality of work of the individual experiencing
stress will suffer but stress can also have an impact on the work life balance
of the individual.
Check Your Progress II
1) What is inverted U?
_______________________________________________________
2) What is Burnout?
_______________________________________________________
__________________
4.4 EFFECT OF STRESS ON RELATIONSHIPS
Individuals are not islands but are interdependent on each other. They cannot
function in isolation and rely on each other to carry out various activities as
well as for support. Thus, one of the important dimensions of an individual’s
life is his/ her relationship with others. Stress can also have an impact on the
individual’s relationships.
As we have discussed in earlier Units, as stress is experienced by an
individual, he/ she will become irritable and may also express anger. These
can have an impact on his/her relationship with others. Further, individuals
undergoing stress may withdraw themselves or may seem distracted or
may display less affection towards significant individuals in their lives.
Experiencing stress for a considerable period of time may also lead to
depletion in coping resources, thus the person experiencing stress is also
less patient with others.
Inadequate coping strategies employed by the individuals may also lead
to behaviours that may negatively affect the individual’s relationship
with others. For instance, as a result of stress, the person may indulge in
substance use (consumption of alcohol and drug use) and such behaviours
over a period of time can negatively affect his/ her relationship with others.
Stress may also lead to interpersonal conflicts that again may result in
negative effects on relationships. Individuals who are under stress may say
certain things or make certain mistakes that they would otherwise refrain
from doing. Even decision making and problem-solving abilities of the
person get affected and certain decisions he/ she takes or problem solving
strategies that he/ she may employ can affect his/ her relationship with others
and develop interpersonal conflicts.
55
A person under stress may also become more sensitive and may be offended Effect of Stress
by certain things said by others, intentionally or unintentionally. All these
could interfere with one’s relationship with others and relationship problems
may further lead to stress in the individual.
As was discussed in the earlier section of this unit, stress can also affect
communication and thus the individual experiencing stress may not filter
what he/ she wants to say and may indulge in using harsh and unpleasant
language, which otherwise he/ she would have refrained from using. The
outcome could be that the other person may feel bad or hurt. This as well
can have an impact on relationships. Jobs and work-related activities have
become more and more complex and the stress experienced at work is also
high and this can have a spill over in the personal life of the individual.
Often, individuals bottle up their stress and do not deal with it or express
it. In such a case, it is not possible for significant others in the person’s
life, especially the spouse, to understand what he/ she is going through and
provide the required support. Further, stress can be termed as contagious,
where when a partner is undergoing stress, the other partner will also
experience stress (Shrout, 2018).
Besides the direct effects of stress, there are indirect effects of stress as well.
For instance, individuals experiencing stress may not maintain a healthy
lifestyle, are less likely to exercise, may not sleep or eat adequately and
may also consume alcohol and indulge in smoking. These in turn will lead
to development of various disorders and illnesses and also have negative
impact on relationships.
The day to day experiences that we go through from traffic jams, pollution,
fast pace of life, overuse of technology can lead to building up of stress
within us and if these are not dealt with effectively, they can have an impact
on not only one’s health and wellbeing but also one’s relationships. A
vicious circle is created where stress has a negative effect on relationships
and the relationship problems and issues in turn could lead to further stress
in the individual.
Check Your Progress III
1) Highlight the indirect effects of stress.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
4.5 Let Us Sum Up
To summarise, stress has a negative impact on health of an individual. A
number of illnesses like cardiovascular disorders, aches and pain, ulcers,
hypertension, diabetes and even cancer can be attributed to stress. Stress
can have an impact on the immune system of the individual and thus the
individual may become easily prone to varied infections and illnesses.
56
Introduction to Stress Stress can also accelerate ageing. Further, stress can also cause anxiety and
depression. Extreme stress can also lead to development of Post Traumatic
Stress Disorder (PTSD) and other psychological disorders. Stress can
also have an impact on cognitive functioning of the individual, that can
be termed as a key component of performance and productivity. Prolonged
stress can affect memory, attention and concentration of the individual.
Stress can also lead to worrying constantly, forgetting, lack of organisation,
lack of judgement, racing thoughts and being pessimistic and all these in
turn can have an impact on the overall performance and productivity of
the individual. While discussing about relationship between stress and
performance, the hypothesis related to the inverted – U was discussed. The
diagrammatic representation of Inverted – U was also given. The inverted
– U denotes that as the stress increases, the performance also increases,
however at certain point where stress continues to increase, the performance
is affected and goes down. Thus, it can be said that stress plays an important
role in performance, but as it goes beyond certain optimal level, the
performance will get negatively affected. The effect of stress on academic
performance was briefly discussed besides effect of stress on performance
and productivity at workplace. When employees experience stress for a
longer period of time, the outcome could be affective exhaustion, decreased
organisational commitment and higher turnover amongst the employees.
Decreased performance, job dissatisfaction and even absenteeism can be
related with stress. Stress can affect not only focus of the individual but
also his/ her communication pattern and interpersonal relationship at work.
The term burnout was also discussed in this context. Lastly, we discussed
about the effect of stress on relationships. Individuals are not islands but are
interdependent on each other. They cannot function in isolation and rely on
each other to carry out various activities as well as for support. Thus, one
of the important dimensions of an individual’s life is his/her relationship
with others. Irritability, communication issues, inadequate coping and so
on can take a toll on individuals’ interpersonal relation. There are indirect
effects of stress as well. For instance, individuals experiencing stress may
not maintain a healthy lifestyle, are less likely to exercise, may not sleep or
eat adequately and may also consume alcohol and even smoking. These in
turn will lead to development of various disorders and illnesses and have
negative impact on relationships. The day to day experiences that we go
through from traffic jams, pollution, fast pace of life, overuse of technology
can lead to building up of stress within us and if these are not dealt with
effectively, they can have an impact on not only one’s health and wellbeing
but also one’s relationships. A vicious circle is created where stress has a
negative effect on relationships and the relationship problems and issues
that may thus emerge in turn would lead to further stress in the individual.
4.6 References
Crannage, A. (2018). Stress and Our Mental Health – What is the Impact &
How Can We Tackle It? retrieved from https://www.mqmentalhealth.org/
posts/stress-and-mental-health on 22nd November at 10:00 pm.
Ghosh, M. (2015). Health Psychology: Concepts in Health and Wellbeing.
New Delhi: Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd.
Kavanagh, J. ( 2005). Stress and Performance: A Review of the Literature Effect of Stress
and Its Applicability to the Military retrieved from https://www.rand.org/
content/dam/rand/pubs/technical_reports/2005/RAND_TR192.pdf on
22nd November, 2019 at 8:00 pm.
Lazarus, R. S. & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, Appraisal and Coping. New
York: Van Nostrand.
Lutz, J. (2019). How to Manage Stress If You Have Autoimmune Thyroid
Disease retrieved from https://www.endocrineweb.com/conditions/thyroid/
how-manage-stress-if-you-have-autoimmune-thyroid-disease at 10:00 pm.
Marks, D. F., Murray, M., Evans, Brian., Willig, C., Woodall, C., & Sykes,
C. M. (2008). Health Psychology: Theory, Research and Practice. New
Delhi: Sage.
Mangal, S. (1984). Abnormal Psychology. New Delhi, India: Sterling
Publishers.
Parmeswaran, E. G., & Beena, C. (2004). An Invitation to Psychology.
Delhi: Neelkamal Publications Pvt. Ltd.
Pestonjee, D. (1999). Stress and Coping. New Delhi: Sage.
Sanderson, C. (2013). Health Psychology. USA: John Wiley and Sons Inc.
Schafer, W. (1998). Stress Management for Wellness. United States:
Thomson Wadsworth.
Scott, S. B., Graham-Engeland, J. E., Engeland, C. G. et al. (2015). The
Effects of Stress on Cognitive Aging, Physiology and Emotion (ESCAPE)
Project. BMC Psychiatry 15, 146 doi:10.1186/s12888-015-0497-7.
Shrout, R. (2018). What are the effects of stress on a relationship? retrieved
from https://www.unr.edu/nevada-today/news/2018/atp-relationship-stress
on 24th November, 2019 at 1:00 am.
Stress management retrieved from https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthylifestyle/stress-management/in-depth/stress-symptoms/art-20050987 on
23rd November, 2019 at 10:00 pm.
Surwit, R. S; Schneider, M. S. & Feinglos, M. N. (1992). Stress and Diabetes
Mellitus. Diabetes Care, 15(10): 1413-1422. https://doi.org/10.2337/
diacare.15.10.1413.
4.7 KEYWORDS
Burnout: Burnout can be described as the end of stress experienced, by
not properly coped with, resulting in symptoms of exhaustion, irritation,
ineffectiveness, discounting of self and others and problems of health
(hypertension, ulcers and heart problem).
Inverted- U/ Yerkes-Dodson Law: Inverted – U describes the relationship
between stress and performance, where as the stress increases, the
performance also increases, however at certain point where stress continues
to increase, the performance is affected and goes down.
58
Introduction to Stress Technostress: Technostress is stress that is experienced due to lack of
ability to cope with advances in technology.
4.8 Answers to Check Your Progress
Check Your Progress I
1) List any five illnesses that can be attributed to stress
Cardiovascular disorders
Asthma
Migrane
Irritable bowel syndrome
Cancer
2) Highlight how stress affects cognitive functioning.
Prolonged stress can affect memory, attention and concentration of
the individual.
Check Your progress II
1) What is inverted U?
In Inverted – U, as the stress increases, the performance also increases,
however at certain point where stress continues to increase, the
performance is affected and goes down.
2) What is Burnout?
Burnout is the end of stress experienced but not properly coped with,
resulting in symptoms of exhaustion, irritation, ineffectiveness,
discounting of self and others and problems of health (hypertension,
ulcers and heart problem).
Check Your progress III
1) Highlight the indirect effect of stress.
Individuals experiencing stress may not maintain a healthy lifestyle,
are less likely to exercise, may not sleep or eat adequately and may
also consume alcohol and even smoking. These in turn will lead to
development of various disorders and illnesses and also have negative
impact relationship. Thus, stress can have an indirect effect on the
individual.
4.9 Unit End Questions
1) Describe the effect of stress on health.
2) Discuss the effect stress can have on performance and productivity.
3) Explain how stress can impact on relationships.
BLOCK
2
BLOCK 2 STRESS MANAGEMENT
UNIT 5 : Coping with Stress 61
UNIT 6 : Stress Management Techniques I 73
UNIT 7 : Stress Management Techniques II 89
UNIT 8 : Stress Management Techniques III 101
Unit 5 : Coping WITH STRESS*
Structure
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Definition and Nature of coping
5.2.1 Goals of Coping
5.3 Coping styles
5.3.1 Proactive coping and avoidant coping
5.3.2 Emotion focused coping and Problem focused coping
5.4 Let Us Sum Up
5.5 References
5.6 Key Words
5.7 Answers to Check Your Progress
5.8 Unit End Questions
5.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, you will be able to,
• discuss the nature of coping and explain its goals.
• explain coping styles.
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Sania was interested in pursuing a career in dance, but her parents insisted
that she gets into a professional course. She joined MBA programme to
make her parents happy but was not able to keep pace with demands of the
programme. She tried her best to study hard but could not get adequate
marks in the examination. With the frustration that she experienced as a
result of not able to pursue her interest, pressure from her parents and
stress she experienced while pursuing the programme took a toll on her, she
started feeling irritable and angry all the time. Her relationship with friends
was also getting affected. Ultimately, she decided to talk to her parents
and convinced them to let her pursue her interest and took admission at a
performing arts institute, where she excelled and was well appreciated by
her teachers.
Sharan got the promotion that he long waited for and was on top of the
world. But with the promotion came immense responsibilities and work
overload. As a result of the stress and burnout that he experienced, he started
*Prof. Suhas Shetgovekar, Faculty, Discipline of Psychlogy, SOSS, IGNOU
making errors and found himself at the end of blames and criticisms. Soon,
Sharan started experiencing symptoms of depression and also had suicidal
ideation. A day came when he had to be taken to a clinical psychologist for
help in coping with his situation.
Above we discussed two examples. On one hand where Sania was effectively
able to cope with stress, Sharan found it difficult to cope and had to seek
professional help. As a person experiences stress, he/ she will try to cope
and will utilise varied coping strategies. These strategies could be effective
or ineffective.
In the present unit, we will explain the concept of coping as well as various
coping styles.
5.2 DEFINITION AND NATURE OF COPING
Coping in simple terms can be described as ways in which an individual
tries to deal with stress experienced by him/ her. And in this context, the
individual may be able to deal effectively with stress if he/ she adopts
effective coping skills and he/ she may not be able to deal effectively with
stress if the coping skills adopted by him/ her are ineffective.
Coping refers to “the individual’s response to a psychological stressor which
is often related to a negative event” (Roncaglia, 2014, pg. 137). Coping can
also be described as deliberate efforts that are directed towards decreasing
the negative effects, that could be psychological, physical or even social, of
the stressful situation.
Coping has been defined by Lazarus and Folkman in 1980 as efforts, both
cognitive and behavioural, that are directed towards overcoming, decreasing
or enduring the internal and external demands. Thus, there is an effort to
deal with the demands that are created on the resources of an individual as
a result of stress. Coping in this context could be instrumental or palliative.
Instrumental coping is denoted by results of cognitive appraisal or conflicts
related to emotions. Palliative coping, on the other hand, is denoted by
regulation of emotions as a result of cognitive reappraisal of the stressful
event or situation. Thus, either the problem is altered or the emotional
regulation is carried out during the coping process (Ghosh, 2015).
Matheny et al. (1986) defined coping as conscious or unconscious, healthy
or unhealthy effort that is directed towards either prevention or elimination
of stressor or to weaken it or be able to endure its effects in a manner that
is least harmful.
Haan (1993) explained coping as an effort directed towards using the
resources to overcome the difficulties as the obstacles are encountered.
As described by Bartram and Gardner (2008, pg. 228) “Coping is the process
of thoughts and behaviours that people use to manage the internal and
external demands of situations they appraise as being stressful or exceeding
their own resources. Coping efforts seek to manage, master, tolerate, reduce
or minimise the demands of a stressful environment”
From the above definitions it is clear that coping is an effort to deal with Coping with Stress
a stressor. The coping may aim at dealing with the problem that is the
cause of any distress in the individual or to deal with the negative emotions
experienced by him/ her. Though coping could either be adaptive or
maladaptive.
An adaptive coping not only reduces stress but has long term positive
effects. Whereas, maladaptive coping may provide respite from stress for
a short period of time but it could have negative impact on physical and
psychological health of the individual. Some of the maladaptive coping
strategies are consumption of alcohol or drugs, smoking, risky behaviours,
isolating oneself, being overcritical of oneself and so on.
Individual differences exist in the way individuals cope with stressful
situations. Variations could exist based on personality of an individual, his/
her tolerance level for stimulation, psychological hardiness, the style of
attribution, learned helplessness and his/ her sense of coherence. Difference
may also exist due to gender (Ghosh, 2015).
Personality not only determines how stress is perceived by an individual
but also how he/ she reacts and copes with stress. Individuals having varied
personalities will display different coping styles and strategies. Similarly
people with high or low need for stimulation will also vary in their coping
strategies. Persons with low need for stimulation are not able to cope with
stress as do people with high need for stimulation (Ghosh, 2015).
Hardiness and resilience also play a role in determining the coping ability of
the individuals. Psychological hardiness can be described as an individual’s
ability to deal with stressful situations with resilience (Bartone, 1999;
Kobasa, 1979). Hardiness can be related with three main aspects, namely,
commitment, control and challenge and these can determine the response to
stress or coping strategy employed by the individual (Ghosh, 2015).
With reference to the style of attribution, individuals could be optimistic or
pessimistic and this can also determine the coping strategy employed by the
individuals. Optimistic individuals are likely to cope better with stressful
situations when compared with individuals who are pessimistic.
The term learned helplessness was introduced by Seligman. The term is
used to “describe the interference with adaptive responding produced by
inescapable shock and also as a shorthand to describe the process which
we believe underlies the behavior” (Seligman, 1972, pg. 408). The coping
process that an individual goes through may differ based on learned
helplessness.
Anttonovosky, 1987 (as cited in Ghosh, 2015, pg. 169) described sense of
coherence as “enduring through dynamic, feeling of confidence that:
(1) The stimuli deriving from ones internal and external environments in
the course of living are structured, predictable and explicable,
(2) The resources are available to one to meet the demands posed by these
stimuli, and 3. These demands are challenges worthy of investment and engagement”.
Men and women also differ in the way they cope with stress. Women
are more likely to employ coping strategies like positive self-talk,
seeking support from others, continuously worrying about the stressful
event and so on, though they are also more prone to develop learned
helplessness. Men on the other hand could engage in maladaptive
coping strategies like consumption of alcohol and drugs (Ghosh,
2015). Further, women are more prone to using the coping strategies
that target at bringing about change in their emotional reactions to
a situation that is stressful and men are more likely to focus on the
problem (Endler and Parker, 1990; Matud, 2004; Ptacek et al., 1994).
Further, women also experience more psychological distress as well
as display symptoms of depression and anxiety when compared with
men and this can also be attributed to the coping strategies that are
emotion focused that are more frequently used by women when
compared with men (Kelly et al, 2008). Coping can also differ or may
depend on various external aspects including social support received
by the individual.
5.2.1 Goals of Coping
As we now have a clear idea about the meaning and definition of coping, let
us now discuss the goals of coping. As was explained earlier, the main goal
of coping is dealing with the stressor so that its impact on the individual is
minimal. Further, individual differences exist in the coping styles adopted
by the persons. Also, different coping strategies may be effective in different
situations. Thus, during the coping process either internal resources or
external resources are utilized by the individuals (Ghosh, 2015). Some of
the major goals of coping are as follows (Ghosh, 2015):
• To enhance the possibility of recovery by decreasing the negative
environmental conditions.
• To be able to adjust to the negative situation.
• To maintain a self-image that is positive and maintain emotional
balance.
• To ensure positive interpersonal relationship.
Coping is termed as effective when it leads to recovery and when the
individual is able to adapt to the stressful situation by means of maintaining
a positive image about one’s self, emotional balance and has effective
interpersonal relationships. Whether a coping has been effective or not can
be assessed based on the results of the coping. For instance, physiological
and biochemical changes and functioning can be assessed in order ascertain
whether the coping has been adaptive or not. An adaptive coping will lead
to regulation of various physiological indicators. Besides the physiological
measures, if there is decrease in psychological distress displayed by the
individual, then the coping strategy can be termed as adaptive. The duration
of time taken by individuals to achieve the same state of functioning before
they experienced a negative event (for instance, divorce, job loss and so
on) or display of an improved state of functioning than before the negative
event was experienced can also be an indicator of successful coping.
Check Your progress I Coping with Stress
1) Define Coping.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
2) State any one goal of coping.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
5.3 COPING STYLES
As the nature of coping is now clear let us focus on the coping styles and
strategies. Coping styles can be categoried as proactive coping, avoidant
coping, emotion focused coping and problem focused coping. Proactive
coping and avoidant coping are based on the method of coping and the
emotion focused coping and problem focused coping are based on the focus
of the coping. Let us discuss each of these styles in detail.
5.3.1 Proactive coping and avoidant coping
In proactive coping the individual will directly confront the stressful
situation or event. An individual adopting this type of coping will take direct
action by developing a better idea about the stress creating situation.
There are various stages of proactive coping (Ghosh, 2015):
Stage 1 Accumulation of resources: In order to be able to deal with the
stressful situation, the individual will make attempts to accumulate resources,
this could also be in terms of gathering information so as to understand the
stressful situation in better manner.
Stage 2 Identifying or anticipating the potential stressor: A potential
stressor is anticipated or identified by the individual. For instance, if it is
expected that one’s superior may ask for a certain report, the employee will
anticipate the stressor and start working on the report before hand.
Stage 3 Initial appraisal: Initial appraisal of the stress creating situation is
carried out.
Stage 4 Preliminary efforts to cope with the stressful situation: Based on
the initial appraisal, preliminary efforts to cope with the stressful situation
are carried out. In case these efforts do not show any positive results then,
some other action is taken in order to deal with the situation.
Stage 5 Seeking feedback and using the same: Based on the stages three
and four, feedback is sought and used so that modifications and changes can
be carried out.
In avoidant coping, as the name suggests, the individual will try to avoid
the stress creating situation or may give less importance to the stressful
event. Thus, the behaviour that is displayed by the individual is directed
towards avoiding certain thoughts or feelings that could arise due to the
stressful situation. Avoidance coping can result in individuals experiencing
not only stress and anxiety but it can have an impact on self-confidence of
the individual as well (Boyes, 2013). As stated by Holahan et al. (2005)
“Avoidance coping involves cognitive and behavioral efforts oriented
toward denying, minimising, or otherwise avoiding, dealing directly with
stressful demands and is closely linked to distress and depression. In
avoidant coping certain behaviours that may stir up negative memories are
avoided”. Situations that may stir up negative feelings are also avoided.
Individuals who use avoidant coping may not continue pursuing their goal
if they experience thoughts that create anxiety (Boyes, 2013).
5.3.2 Emotion focused coping and Problem focused coping
Let us look at the example given below:
Since Sunny was assigned to a new superior, Sunny felt that he has been
given more work compared to his colleagues and is also criticised frequently.
He is not aware why his superior is doing so, but the work overload and
frequent criticisms are taking a toll on him and he feels stressed. He even
lost sleep and appetite. Sunny’s friends noticed change in Sunny as he would
keep to himself and was not his usual self. Some of his friends decided to
speak to him. After understanding the issue, one of them, Kabir, suggested
that Sunny should directly speak to his superior or the human resource
department. Another friend, Kedar, suggested that he needs to accept and
adjust with the situation and try to put in his best.
As you can see in the above example, two of the Sunny’s friends gave two
different suggestions. The suggestion given by Kabir is mainly problem
focused where the problem is dealt with in a direct manner. Whereas, the
suggestion given by Kedar mainly focuses on managing one’s emotions and
can be termed emotional coping or emotion focused coping.
Emotion focused coping can be differentiated from problem focused coping
as its purpose is to manage emotions that are related with the stressful
situation rather than modifying the situation.
Emotion focused coping involves management of the emotional reactions
towards the events causing stress. “Emotion-focused coping strategies aim
to reduce and manage the intensity of the negative and distressing emotions
that a stressful situation has caused rather than solving the problematic
situation itself” (Galor, 2012). Thus, this coping is directed towards
decreasing any unpleasantness that the person experiences as a result of
facing the stressful situation. The avoidant coping style that we discussed
earlier could be related with this coping style as it involves avoidance of a
situation. Though, this coping style also involves positive reappraisal, where,
67
positive aspects of the situation are focused on keeping in mind one’s own Coping with Stress
benefits and growth. Emotion focused coping are often used when change
in the stressful situation is not possible and it is also more likely to be used
by women than men (Ghosh, 2015). Using emotion focused coping can help
in decreasing the negative effects of the stressor on the individual and will
help the individual accept the situation and will thus lead to decrease in the
experience of chronic stress. It also helps individuals to think with a clear
mind and seek a solution to the problem. It may also lead to contentment
in life and bring about positivity. This in turn can lead to enhancement of
one’s ability to focus on aspects that can be modified or changed. Some
of the strategies of emotion focused coping include, listening to music,
maintaining a diary, meditation, exercise and so on.
Some of the drawbacks of this coping are that it may not be as effective, as
the source of the stress is not dealt with, and, as such no long term solution
is sought.
Problem focused coping involves identifying the source of the problem so
as to either deal with it or modify it. The proactive coping that we discussed
earlier can be closely related with this type of coping. Further, problem
focused coping also involves taking control of the stressful situation, seeking
information about it and evaluation of positive and negative aspects in a
situation (Roncaglia, 2014). In problem focused coping the first step involved
is identification of the problem so that the source of stress is clear. And this
is important as this coping style can be effective only when there is clarity
with regard to the problem. For instance, problem focused coping works
well while coping with examinations, interviews, making presentations and
so on where one knows what the source of stress is and also stress caused
due to such situations can be controlled by the individual. Though, if the
source of stress is based on emotions then it is better to use emotion focused
coping rather than problem focused coping. For instance, while dealing with
loss of a loved one, divorce or breakup and so on. Further, in this style, the
obstacles that may arise in the process of dealing with the stressful situation
need to be avoided and the focus should be on problem. For instance, if a
person has an interview, but could not prepare for it due to paucity of time,
he/ she has no other choice but face the interview and do his/ her best. In
this case the paucity of time could be termed as a roadblock that need not be
focused on as time has already passed and nothing can be done about it. The
main limitations of this coping style are that it may not be effective in every
stressful situation and as such may not be suitable for all the individuals.
Though it is often effective in dealing with stressors and useful in long run.
Various strategies involved in problem solving coping include, management
of time, seeking support, seeking help from others, planning and so on.
Yet another coping style was proposed by Carver and Connor-Smith in 2010.
It is called appraisal- focussed coping. In this coping style, the assumptions
of an individual with regard to his/ her perceptions of the stressor are
challenged by the means of a cognitive reappraisal (Roncaglia, 2014).
Coping can also be categorised as combative coping and preventive coping
as stated by Folkman et al. (Ghosh, 2015). In combative coping, in order
to deal with the stressor, the individual makes an attempt to remove the
stressor by overcoming it. Combative coping involves monitoring of stress,
resource accumulation, dealing with the stressor by attacking it directly,
tolerance of stress, and decreasing arousal (Ghosh, 2015).
In preventive coping, cognitive restructuring takes place so that the stressor
is not threatening any more. Further, one’s own potential for resistance
is also strengthened so that the stressor can be prevented from occurring.
Preventive coping includes adjustments so that the stressors can be avoided.
Also demand levels are adjusted, behaviour patterns that lead to stress are
modified and coping resources (physiological, psychological, financial and
so on) are developed (Ghosh, 2015).
Check Your Progress II
1) List the stages of proactive coping.
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2) What is problem focused coping?
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5.4 Let Us Sum Up
In the present Unit, we discussed the definition and nature of coping with
stress and the coping styles. Coping in simple terms can be described as
ways in which an individual tries to deal with stress experienced by him/ her.
Coping can also be described as deliberate efforts that are directed towards
decreasing the negative effects, that could be psychological, physical or
even social, of the stressful situation. Coping could either be adaptive or
maladaptive. An adaptive coping style not only reduces stress but has long
term effects. Whereas, maladaptive coping may provide respite from stress
for a short period of time but it could have negative impacts on physical
and psychological health of the individual. Individual differences exist in
the way individuals cope with stressful situations. Variations could exist
based on personality of individuals, his/ her tolerance level for stimulation,
psychological hardiness, the style of attribution, learned helplessness and
his/ her sense of coherence. Difference may also exist due to gender. The
goals of coping were also discussed in this Unit and some of the major
goals of coping include enhancing the possibility of recovery by decreasing
69
the negative environmental conditions, being able to adjust to the negative Coping with Stress
situation, maintaining a self-image that is positive and emotional balance
and ensuring positive interpersonal relationships. Coping is termed as
effective when it leads to recovery and when the individual is able to adapt
to the stressful situation by means of maintaining a positive image about
one’s self, emotional balance and has effective interpersonal relationship.
Coping styles can be categories as proactive coping, avoidant coping,
emotion focused coping and problem focused coping. Proactive coping and
avoidant coping are based on the method of coping and the emotion focused
coping and problem focused coping are based on the focus of the coping. In
proactive coping the individual will directly confront the stressful situation
or event. An individual adopting this type of coping will take direct action
by developing a better idea about the stress creating situation. In avoidant
coping style, the individual will try to avoid the stress creating situation or
may give less importance to the stressful event. Emotion focused coping
involves management of the emotional reactions towards the events causing
stress and problem focused coping style involves identifying the source of
the problem so as to either deal with it or modify it. Emotion focused coping
can be differentiated from the problem focused coping as its purpose is to
manage emotions that are related with the stressful situation rather than
modifying the situation.
In the next Unit we will discuss about various stress management techniques
5.5 References
Bartone, P. T. (1999). Hardiness protects against war-related stress in army
reserve forces. Consulting Psychology Journal, Vol. 51, pp. 72-82.
Bartram, D., & Gardner, D. (2008). Coping with Stress. In Practice 30, 228-231.
Boyes, A. (2013). Avoidance Coping. Retrieved from https://www.
psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/in-practice/201305/avoidance-coping on
21/06/2019 at 7:00 pm.
Endler, N. S., Parker, J. D. A. (1990). Multidimensional assessment of
coping: A theoretical analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
58, 844–854.
Galor, S. (2012). Emotion-focused coping strategies. Retrieved from
https://drsharongalor.wordpress.com/2012/03/31/emotion-focused-copingstrategies/ on 22/06/2019 at 3:00 pm.
Ghosh, M. (2015). Health psychology: Concepts in Health and Wellbeing.
New Delhi: Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd.
Haan, N. (1993). The assessment of coping, defence, and stress. In L.
Goldberger & S. Breznitz (Eds.), Handbook of Stress: Theoretical and
Clinical Aspects (pp. 258-273). New York, NY, US: Free Press.
Holahan, C., Moos, R., Holahan, C., Brennan, P., & Schutte, K. (2005).
Stress Generation, Avoidance Coping, and Depressive Symptoms: A 10-
Year Model. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73(4), 658-
666. doi: 10.1037/0022-006x.73.4.658.
70
Stress Management Kelly, M. M., Tyrka, A. R., Price, L. H & Carpenter, L. L. (2008). Sex
Differenced in the use of coping strategies: Predictors of anxiety and
depression symptoms. Depression Anxiety 25 (10): 839-846 doi: 10.1002/
da.20341
Kobasa, S. C. (1979). Stressful life events, personality, and health: An inquiry
into hardiness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 1–11.
Kobasa, S. C., Maddi, S. R., Puccetti, M., & Zola, M. A. (1986). Relative
effectiveness of hardiness, exercise, and social support as resources against
illness. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 29, 525–533.
Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, Appraisal and Coping. New
York: Van Nostrand.
Marks, D. F., Murray, M., Evans, Brian., Willig, C., Woodall, C & Sykes, C.
M. (2008). Health Psychology: Theory, Research and Practice. New Delhi:
Sage Publications.
Mangal, S. (1984). Abnormal Psychology. New Delhi, India: Sterling
Publishers.
Matheny, K. B., Aycock, D. W., Pugh, J. L., Curlette, W. L., & Silva Cannella,
K. A., (1986). Stress coping: A qualitative and quantitative synthesis with
implications for treatment. The Counseling Psychologist, 14, 499-549.
Matud, M. P. (2004). Gender differences in stress and coping styles.
Personality and Individual Differences, 37,1401–1415.
Parmeswaran, E. G., & Beena, C. (2004). An Invitation to Psychology.
Delhi: Neelkamal Publications Pvt. Ltd.
Pestonjee, D. (1999). Stress and coping. New Delhi: Sage Publications.
Ptacek, J. T., Smith, R. E., Dodge, K. L. (1994). Gender differences in
coping with stress: When stressors and appraisal do not differ. Personality
and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20, 421–430.
Roncaglia, I. (2014). Coping Styles: A better understanding of stress and
anxiety in individuals with autism spectrum conditions through sport and
exercise models. Psychological Thought, 7(2), 134–143, doi:10.5964/psyct.
v7i2.115
Sanderson, C. (2013). Health Psychology. USA: John Wiley and Sons Inc.
Schafer, W. (1998). Stress Management for Wellness. United States:
Thomson Wadsworth.
Seligman, M. (1972). Learned Helplessness. Annual Review Of Medicine,
23(1), 407-412. doi: 10.1146/annurev.me.23.020172.002203.
5.6 KEY WORDS
Coping: Coping in simple terms can be described as ways in which an
individual tries to deal with stress experienced by him/ her.
Avoidant coping: In avoidant coping, as the name suggests, the individual
will try to avoid the stress creating situation or may give less importance to
the stressful event.
Emotion focused coping: Emotion focused coping involves management Coping with Stress
of the emotional reactions towards the events causing stress.
Proactive coping: In proactive coping the individual will directly confront
the stressful situation or event. An individual adopting this type of coping
will take direct action by developing a better idea about the stress creating
situation.
Problem focused coping: Problem focused coping involves identifying the
source of the problem so as to either deal with it or modify it.
5.7 Answers to Check Your Progress
Check Your progress I
1) Define Coping.
Lazarus and Folkman in 1980 defined coping as efforts, both cognitive
and behavioural, that are directed towards overcoming, decreasing or
enduring the internal and external demands.
2) State any one goal of coping
One of the goals of coping is to enhance the possibility of recovery by
decreasing the negative environmental conditions.
Check Your Progress II
1) List the stages of proactive coping.
The stages of proactive coping are as follows:
Stage 1 Accumulation of resources
Stage 2 Identifying or anticipating the potential stressor
Stage 3 Initial appraisal
Stage 4 Preliminary efforts to cope with the stressful situation
Stage 5 Seeking feedback and using the same
2) What is problem focused coping?
Problem focused coping style involves identifying the source of the
problem so as to either deal with it or modify it.
5.8 UNIT END QUESTIONS
1) Define coping and discuss its goals.
2) Explain the nature of coping.
3) Describe the steps involved in proactive coping.
4) Discuss proactive and avoidant coping styles.
5) Describe emotion focused and problem focused coping.
Unit 6 : STRESS MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES I*
Structure
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Relaxation Techniques
6.3 Meditation
6.4 Yoga
6.5 Mindfulness
6.6 Biofeedback
6.7 Let Us Sum Up
6.8 References
6.9 Key Words
6.10 Answers to Check Your Progress
6.11 Unit End Questions
6.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, you will able to,
• discuss the techniques of stress management like relaxation
technique, meditation, Yoga, mindfulness and biofeedback.
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Rahul was a Human Resource Manager in an MNC. He noticed that the
performance and effectiveness of the employees of his organization was
getting affected due to occupational stress. Therefore, he spoke to his
management and arranged for a half an hour meditation session everyday
for the employees, that really made a difference.
Neha worked as a counsellor in a school. She noticed that one of her teacher
colleagues, Snehal was stressed. She decided to speak to Snehal and found
that she was stressed due to some issues that she was facing at home. Neha
discussed cognitive restructuring technique with Snehal and asked her to
practice the same. Post vacation when Neha met Snehal, Snehal informed
that there was a huge difference in the way she approached the problems
that she was facing and that her stress had gone down considerably.
Niharika was a home manager. Her friend Sheela lately noticed that
Niharika was getting stressed due to her hectic routine. She suggested
Niharika to take up Yoga classes so as to help her deal better with the stress
that she was experiencing
In the above cases, we can see that certain stress management techniques
have been used (meditation, cognitive restructuring and Yoga). These and
many more can be used by individuals to deal effectively with stress.
In the previous Unit, we discussed about coping with stress and covered
the definition and nature of coping and also discussed about coping styles.
In the present Unit and the next, we will focus on stress management
techniques. There are various stress management techniques that can
be used by individuals to deal with stress and as students of psychology,
we need to understand these techniques and how they help individuals
deal effectively with stress. Stress management techniques ranging from
relaxation techniques, meditation, mindfulness, cognitive restructuring and
so on can help individual manage stress effectively.
Before we actually start with discussion on various stress management
techniques, let us do a simple breathing exercise:
Sit straight and close your eyes before you start with the exercise.
Then, breath in and breath out gently (as you normally do).
Do this for five to ten minutes.
Focus on your thoughts and concentrate on your breathing.
Rub your palms together, put them on your eyes and then slowly open your eyes.
I hope you are feeling refreshed after this exercise and all set to study
further about stress management.
The above exercise can be carried out from time to time in a day as required
so as to refresh your mind and body. Important point is to do it with all your
heart and seriousness.
In Block 1, we discussed about stress, its nature, models and effects. These
are very important in order to understand stress management. Individual
differences exist in the way stress is perceived and experienced and in a
similar manner, the techniques of stress management found to be effective
by different individuals will also differ. Some may find Yoga to be more
suitable, whereas others may want to go for relaxation techniques.
There are various stress management techniques that will be discussed by us
in the present and the next Units.
6.2 Relaxation techniques
As discussed, by us in earlier units there are a number of physiological
changes that take place in the individual who is experiencing stress. These
could range from rapid breathing to increased heartbeat and pulse rate,
tightening of muscles and so on. In such a situation relaxation techniques
can be effectively used, especially, to reduce the muscle tension experienced
by the individual undergoing stress. Relaxation techniques help not only in
relieving stress but they also help in dealing with anxiety, help sleep better,
help in regulation of blood pressure, reduce headaches and migraine and so on.
One such relaxation technique is Jacobson’s Progressive Muscle Relaxation.
This technique involves deep muscle relaxation. The main assumption of
this technique is that relaxation and tension cannot occur at the same time,
mainly because both are as a result of two different autonomic nervous
systems, that is, sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. And
these systems cannot be active at the same time as they reciprocally inhibit
each other.
The technique mainly involves contracting various body muscles and then
relaxing them. The exercise can be carried out for approximately 15 to 20
minutes and could be practiced twice a day. The following needs to be kept
in mind before practicing this technique (Ghosh, 2015):
1. It is to be practiced in a place that one finds comfortable.
2. Preferably it needs to be carried out at a time when there are least
distractions.
3. It needs to be carried out with belief in one self and should not be
hurriedly carried out.
4. Any drugs or medications should not be used for relaxation and
those on medication may practice after seeking medical advice.
5. Caution must be maintained by persons suffering from problems
like backaches, fractures and other injuries.
The technique mainly starts with breathing in, holding the breath and letting
go. It is important to be calm as well as comfortable while practicing this
technique. Eyes can be closed during the technique. Breathing exercise could
be repeated a few times and that can be followed by tensing and relaxing
of different muscles. This technique involves contracting and relaxing 16
muscle groups alternatively. These muscles include arms, hands, shoulders,
neck, forehead-eyes-scalp, jaws – mouth, chest – trunk, stomach, lower
back, buttocks, thigh, foot-calf (Ghosh 2015). The contracting and relaxing
of muscle is to be carried out as follows:
• Bend the arms up to the elbow, hold for few seconds and relax.
• Hands can be clenched in a fist, hold for some time and open.
• Shoulders can be pulled in upward direction, held in this position for
a while and then released.
• For relaxing the neck, head can be pushed back for a few seconds
and then brought in the original position. Similarly, chin can be
brought down towards the chest, for a few seconds and then brought
in the original position.
• For chest, deep breaths to be taken, held for few seconds and then
relaxed.
• Stomach can be pulled in for a few seconds and then relaxed.
• For thighs, knees can be pulled together for a while and then relaxed
by drifting them apart.
• Buttocks can be squeezed together and relaxed.
• For feet, pull your toes up in the direction of your knees, hold this
position briefly and then relax by letting go. Heels can be pressed
against the ground for a few seconds and the relaxed by letting go.
Post exercise it is important to remain relaxed and not make jerky
movements, though you can have a final stretch. Before you open your eyes
count backwards from ten to one and then rub your palms together and put them on your eyes. Then, eyes can be opened slowly and the feeling of
being relaxed can be enjoyed.
Box 6.1: Quick method for relief from stress
1) Close your eyes.
2) Try to relax your arms and shoulders.
3) Rotate your head in a circle a few times – first to the right, then to
the left.
4) Take a deep breath and exhale, repeat this for five to ten minutes.
5) Concentrate on your breathing.
6) Put aside all stressful thoughts.
7) Count backwards from ten to one.
8) Rub your palms together and put them on your eyes.
9) Slowly open your eyes.
Check Your Progress I
1) What is the main assumption of Jacobson’s Progressive Muscle
Relaxation?
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6.3 Meditation
Meditation is yet another technique that can be used to deal with stress.
Meditation is the English word for Sanskrit term ‘Dhyana’. It can be
described as a process of “quieting the mind in order to spend time in
thought for relaxation with a goal to attain inner state of awareness and
intensify personal and spiritual growth” (https://www.yogapedia.com/
definition/4949/meditation). Meditation also will relax your body and thus
the negative impact of stress on the body is reduced. Meditation not only
leads to relaxation of body but it also helps in increasing self-awareness.
And regular practice of meditation will have long term benefits.
There are different types of meditation (Villines, 2017, Welch, 2019). Some
of these are briefly explained as follows:
Mindfulness meditation: This mainly includes becoming aware about
one’s thoughts. It involves sitting in a place without any distractions and
non-judgmentally observing one’s thoughts and emotions.
Transcendental meditation: This involves chanting of a ‘mantra’/ chant
or a word repeatedly in certain manner. This again can be done in a quiet
place. One can sit straight but comfortably and practice this meditation for
15 to 20 minutes.
Guided meditation: As the name suggests, in this meditation, there is often
a guide who will take you through the meditation process. This meditation
mainly involves visualisation of certain images that you may find relaxing.
It also involves utilising one’s senses. The person may be asked to sit in a
quiet and calm place with eyes closed and visualise certain images that he/
she finds relaxing.
Vipassana meditation: The main aim of this meditation is self-observation
in order to transform oneself. It requires attention to be paid to different
bodily sensations in order to create a connection between body and mind.
Loving kindness meditation (Metta meditation): This meditation includes
directing love and kindness towards others. The individual is required to
sit straight but in a comfortable position in a quiet place. He/ she is then
required to take a few deep breaths and repeat to oneself words that express
kindness to self, then to family, friends and other significant people in his/
her life and then to everyone.
Chakra (means wheel) meditation: In our body there are different energy
centers and power that are spiritual in nature and they are referred to as
chakras or wheels. There are a total of seven such chakras that are located
in different parts of our body and each chakra is represented by a colour.
The main aim of this meditation is to bring about an equilibrium in these
chakras.
The benefits of meditation include not only reduction of stress but it can
also help in managing anxiety, promoting affective health, enhancing self
awareness, increasing the span of attention and so on. Initially it can be
practiced once in a day for a few minutes and later on the duration can be
increased and it can also be practiced twice a day.
Box 6.2: A simple way to meditate is given as follows:
• You need to sit on a chair comfortably with your back straight. Let
your feet touch the floor and do not cross your legs or arms. You
can either rest you arms in your lap or keep them on the armrest.
• Then you need to close your eyes.
• Breath in deeply and breath out gently and try to relax your body.
• Keep your eyes closed and you can either repeat a mantra, a word
to your self or can have a (prewritten) self dialogue with your self.
• If you get distracted, repeat the mantra, word or continue with the
self dialogue.
• You can do this for 15 to 20 minutes (initially it can be done for
smaller time period).
• As you complete the meditation count backwards from ten to one.
• Rub your palms together and put them on your eyes.
• Slowly open your eyes.
Check Your progress II
1) What is transcendental meditation?
2) What are the benefits of meditation?
6.4 Yoga
You all must be aware that we celebrate International Day of Yoga on 21st
June every year. Such is the effectiveness of Yoga that it is now promoted
at International level in order to create awareness and promote practice of
Yoga amongst the individuals so as to help them enhance their health and
wellbeing. Yoga as a practice originated in India and the term Yoga is derived
from Sanskrit meaning ‘to unite’, indicating a union of consciousness and
body (https://www.un.org/en/events/yogaday/). The main goal of Yoga is
self realisation (Balaji, 2012). Yoga finds its mention in Bhagwad Gita,
where a whole chapter is devoted to it. Three main types of yoga have been
mentioned in this regard.
Karma Yoga: That is yoga related to one’s actions.
Bhakti Yoga: Yoga related to devotion.
Jnana Yoga: That is Yoga related to knowledge.
There is also a fourth type that was put forth by Patanjali, He introduced
Ashtang Yoga, that is, power yoga. This yoga involves a movement or a flow
from posture to posture (Balaji, 2012). Figure 6.1 shows various dimensions
of Yoga (Balaji, 2012).
Fig 6.1: Dimensions of Yoga
Yoga mainly involves bodily postures (Asanas), breathing exercises and
meditation that are to be carried out in a specific manner.
Types of Asanas
There are various types of asanas, some of these have been briefly discussed
as follows:
1.) Padmasana: This is also referred as the lotus pose that can be used
during meditation. Padmasana is practiced by sitting straight on the
ground with your feet on top of your thighs. This asana is quite difficult
and may need practice before one is able to carry it out adequately.
2.) Sukhasana: This involves sitting cross-legged. This is an easy asana
and like Padmasana, it can be used during meditation.
3.) Siddhasana: This is similar to Padmasana but less difficult. In this.
you need to sit with your toes tucked in to your thighs(Figure.6.2).
Fig 6.2 : Siddhasana
4. Vajrasana: Vajra is a Sanskrit term that can be translated as ‘diamond’
(Balaji, 2012). This involves sitting on one’s heels by placing palms
on the knees. (Figure 6.3).
5.) Trikonasana: In this asana, you need to stand on the floor with legs
apart and then you need to stretch your body to the left in such a way
that spine is straight and your body is facing towards front and your
Stress Management arms are perpendicular to the floor, with left hand resting on the floor
and right hand straight up (Balaji, 2012, pg. 3). Refer to figure 6.4.
Fig 6.4: Trikonasana
6. Bhujangasana: Also referred to as cobra pose, in this the person has to
lie face down on the floor, with hands on the floor below the shoulder. Then
he/ she has to lift his/ her head and chest slowly. The elbows are to be kept
near the body, with neck straight and eyes looking up.
Fig 6.5: Bhujangasana
Pranayam
Pranayam is a breathing exercise that can be carried out for stress relief,
though it has number of other health benefits as well. In this you need to
put your right thumb on your right nostril and deeply inhale through your
left nostril. Then you close your left nostril with your right index finger and
hold your breath for a few seconds. Then exhale through your right nostril.
The same can be repeated with your left nostril (Balaji, 2012, pg. 3). Refer
to figure. 6.6.
Fig 6.6: Pranayam
Yoga has a number of benefits including relief from stress, higher
productivity, mindfulness and overall better physical and mental health. But
it is important that one develops its understanding and take suitable training
before it is practiced.
Note: Figures for Asanas have been taken from Balaji Deekshitulu PV
(2012) Stress and Yoga. Journal of Yoga and Physical Therapy, 2:109.
doi:10.4172/2157-7595.1000109
Check Your Progress III
1.) What are the three main types of Yoga?
6.5 Mindfulness
Mindfulness denotes awareness about ones thinking, the way one feels,
physical sensations and one’s surrounding in the present moment. It
mainly involves becoming non-judgmental in one’s awareness about one’s
thoughts and feelings. It mainly involves paying attention to things that
generally we do not notice as we are too occupied with our lives, thinking
about future and past and are seldom focusing on present. Mindfulness
is often termed as a contrast to automatic pilot mode (or a default mode)
where we do things without much thought or attention. Often, we are doing
certain activities like driving, household chores or even eating which we
may do by not paying our complete attention to the task and most often our
attention and thought process may be somewhere else rather than on these
activities. Thus, we are in auto pilot mode. Whereas, mindfulness involves
becoming aware and focusing our attention on these activities. The main
characteristics of mindfulness according to Kabat-Zinn (1990) are being
nonjudgmental, cultivating patience, being open minded, having trust, nonstriving, acceptance and letting go. In fact Kabat-Zinn was also responsible
for starting a programme on Mindfulness- Based Stress Reduction in 1997
at University of Massachusetts Medical School. It is also important that
when mindfulness is practiced, one involves in observing one’s experiences
including thoughts, feelings and physiological sensations. Though when
one is focusing at varied experiences, it is to be done one at a time. Besides
observation, it also involves description of what is being observed but
this is to be done non-judgmentally. Mindfulness also requires complete
participation, thus complete attention and focus needs to be provided to the
task at hand. While practicing mindfulness, it is possible that one’s attention
and focus may drift, in which case one needs to gently bring back the focus
and attention on observing the experience.
Practicing mindfulness can have a positive impact on an individual’s body
and mind. It not only helps in dealing with certain illnesses by strengthening
one’s immune system but it also helps deal with stress and promote positive
mental health. Even memory, attention, problem solving and decision
making can improve with the help of mindfulness. It can also enhance
one’s self esteem and can play a role in building and maintaining positive
relationships.
One of the most important activities that we often do mindlessly is eating.
We eat so that our body gets the necessary nourishment. But most often we
do this activity on an auto pilot mode while we either watch television or
browse our mobiles or engage in social networking. Next time you have
your lunch or dinner try to exercise mindfulness eating. Do this by switching
off the television, keeping aside the mobile and concentrate on your food.
Appreciate your food and pay attention to its taste, colour, sound, texture,
aroma and so on (sense it with all your senses) and be non- judgmental in
doing so. And even while carrying out other activities as well, try to carry
them out in a mindful manner.
Box 6.3: Practicing mindfulness breathing
• You need to sit or lie down (on your back) comfortably. If you sit,
ensure that your back is straight.
• Then you need to close your eyes.
• Breath in and breath out naturally.
• Focus on your breathing.
• As you do this there will be thoughts in your mind, you may
experience emotions, there will be sensations, you may also hear
some sounds. What you need to do is accept these without being
judgemental.
• If you get distracted, try to bring back your attention gently on your
breathing
Check Your Progress IV
1) What is mindfulness?
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2) What are the main characteristics of mindfulness according to KabatZinn?
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6.6 Biofeedback
As described by Ghosh (2015, as cited on pg. 179), “biofeedback is a
technique of making unconscious or involuntary bodily processes (as
heartbeat or brainwaves) perceptible to the senses (as by the use of an
oscilloscope) in order to manipulate them by conscious mental control”. It
can also be described as a process that is non-invasive in nature and helps in
comprehending the effect of stress on one’s body. It helps monitor the bodily
changes that take place when stress is experienced and with the help of such a
feedback, the bodily reactions can be managed and resilience towards stress
can be improved. Thus, the individual will get immediate feedback about
varied physiological processes. Biofeedback can be obtained for breathing,
blood pressure, heart rate, Galvanic skin response etc. that mainly includes
measurement of amount of sweat on skin, temperature of skin, tension in
muscles and so on.
When stress is experienced, there are various physiological changes that
take place in the individual experiencing stress. When individual becomes
aware about these changes with the help of biofeedback, he/ she will be in
a better position to manipulate and control them. Thus, the physiological
arousal that is experienced during stress can be dealt with by using varied
techniques including deep breathing, relaxation and so on. And as the body
is relaxed there is no negative effect of stress on health of the individual.
Biofeedback can also help an individual identify what he/ she needs to
manipulate or control and which technique is more effective while doing so.
Accordingly, the individual can effectively manage stress experienced by
him/ her. Biofeedback can be obtained by becoming more aware about one’s
physical responses. For instance, we can notice our rapid breathing while
experiencing stress. Biofeedback can also be obtained by using certain tools
like thermometer or weighing scales.
We discussed a few techniques of stress management in this unit and many
more will be discussed in the subsequent units. We have to remember that
each of us experience and react to stress in different manner and thus the
techniques that we may find effective to manage stress will also vary. You
need to become aware about your stress, understand it and then select one or
more techniques that will help you deal effectively with your stress.
Check Your Progress V
1) What is biofeedback?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
6.7 Let Us Sum Up
To summarise, in the present Unit we discussed various techniques of
stress management including relaxation techniques, meditation, Yoga,
mindfulness and biofeedback. There are a number of physiological changes
take place in the individual who is experiencing stress. This could range
from rapid breathing to increased heartbeat and pulse rate, tightening
of muscles and so on. In such a situation relaxation techniques can be
effectively used especially to reduce the muscle tension experienced by
the individual undergoing stress. Relaxation techniques help not only in
relieving stress but they also help in dealing with anxiety, help sleep better,
help in regulation of blood pressure, reduce headaches and migraine and
so on. Jacobson’s Progressive Muscle Relaxation was also discussed in
this context. Meditation is yet another technique that can be used to deal
with stress. Meditation will relax your body and thus the negative impact
of stress on the body is reduced. Meditation not only leads to relaxation
of body but also helps in increasing self-awareness. And regular practice
of meditation will have long term benefits. Different types of meditations
like mindfulness meditation, transcendental meditation, guided meditation,
Vipassana meditation, loving kindness meditation (Metta meditation) and
Chakra (means wheel) meditation were also briefly described. With regard
to the next technique, Yoga is derived from Sanskrit meaning ‘to unite’,
indicating a union of consciousness and body The main goal of Yoga is selfrealisation. Yoga find its mention in Bhagwad Gita, where a whole chapter
is devoted to it. Under this section, various Asanas and Pranayam were
explained. Mindfulness was the next technique discussed and it denotes
awareness about ones thinking, the way one feels, physical sensations and
one’s surrounding in the present moment. It mainly involves becoming nonjudgemental in one’s awareness about one’s thoughts and feelings. It mainly
involves paying attention to things that we generally don’t notice as we are
too occupied with our lives, thinking about future and past and thus seldom
focusing on present. Lastly, we discussed biofeedback that is a technique
of making unconscious or involuntary bodily processes (as heartbeat or
brainwaves) perceptible to the senses (as by the use of an oscilloscope) in
order to manipulate them by conscious mental control.
6.8 References
Asanas retrieved from http://www.yoga-age.com/modern/asanas.html on
11th November, 2019 at 1:20 pm.
Bartram, D., & Gardner, D. (2008). Coping with Stress. In Practice, 30,
228-231.
Bjarnadottir, A. (2019). Mindful Eating 101 — A Beginner’s Guide.
Retrieved from https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/mindful-eatingguide on 7th November, 2019 at 7:00 pm.
85
Stress Management
Techniques I
Balaji, D. P. V. (2012). Stress and Yoga. Journal of Yoga and Physical
Therapy 2, 109. doi:10.4172/2157-7595.1000109
Calucchia, C. (2019). Transcendental Meditation: Meditation for Busy
Minds. Retrieved from https://www.mydomaine.com/how-to-dotranscendental-meditation on 7th November, 2019 at 8:00 pm.
Ghosh, M. (2015). Health psychology: Concepts in Health and Wellbeing.
New Delhi: Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd.
International Day of Yoga. Retrieved from https://www.un.org/en/events/
yogaday/ on 9th November, 2019 at 10: 00 pm.
Kabat-Zinn, J. (1990). Full catastrophe living:Using the wisdom of your
body and mind to face stress, pain and illness. New York: Delacourt.
Hawton, K., Salkovskis, P., Kirk, J., & Clark, D. (1989). Cognitive Behaviour
Therapy for Psychiatric Problems. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Meditation retrieved from https://www.yogapedia.com/definition/4949/
meditation on 11th November, 2019 at 4: 00 pm.
Mindfulness retrieved from https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/topic/
mindfulness/definition#how-cultivate-mindfulness on 6th November, 2019
at 3:00 pm.
Sanderson, C. (2013). Health Psychology. USA: John Wiley and Sons Inc.
Schafer, W. (1998). Stress Management for Wellness. United States:
Thomson Wadsworth.
Scott, E. (2019). the Benefits of Yoga for Stress Management retrieved
from https://www.verywellmind.com/the-benefits-of-yoga-for-stressmanagement-3145205 on 9th November, 2019 at 10: 30 pm.
The Difference between Sukhasana, Siddhasana, Padmasana retrieved from
https://yogafirsthand.com/2013/04/21/the-difference-between-sukhasanasiddhasana-padmasana/ on 11th November, 2019 t 2:00 pm.
Villines, Z. (2017). What is the Best Type of Meditation? Retrieved from
https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/320392.php on 6th November,
2019 at 9:30 am.
Welch, A (2019). A Guide to 7 Different Types of Meditation retrieved from
https://www.everydayhealth.com/meditation/types/on 5th November 2019
at 3:00 pm.
8 steps to mindful eating, retrieved from https://www.health.harvard.edu/
staying-healthy/8-steps-to-mindful-eating on 7th November, 2019 at 7:00 pm.
6.9 KEY WORDS
Biofeedback: Biofeedback can be described as a process that is noninvasive in nature and helps in comprehending the effect of stress on one’s
body.
Meditation: It can be described as a process of quieting the mind in order to spend time in thought for relaxation with a goal to attain inner state of
awareness and intensify personal and spiritual growth.
Mindfulness: Mindfulness denotes awareness about ones thinking, the way
one feels, physical sensations and one’s surrounding in the present moment.
Yoga: Yoga as a practice originated in India and the term Yoga is derived
from Sanskrit meaning ‘to unite’, indicating a union of consciousness and
body. The main goal of Yoga is self realisation. Yoga mainly involves bodily
postures (Asanas), breathing exercises and meditation that are to be carried
out in a specific manner.
6.10 Answers to Check Your Progress
Check Your Progress I
1) What is the main assumption of Jacobson’s Progressive Muscle
Relaxation?
Jacobson’s Progressive Muscle Relaxation technique involves deep
muscle relaxation. The main assumption of this technique is that
relaxation and tension cannot occur at the same time, mainly because
both are as a result of two different autonomic nervous systems, that
is, sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.
Check Your progress II
1) What is transcendental meditation?
Transcendental meditation involves chanting of a ‘mantra’/ chant or a
word repeatedly in certain manner.
2) What are the benefits of meditation?
The benefits of meditation include not only reduction of stress but
it can also help in managing anxiety, promoting affective health,
enhancing self-awareness, increasing the span of attention and so on.
Check Your Progress III
1) What are the three main types of Yoga?
The three main types of Yoga are
Karma Yoga: That is yoga related to one’s actions.
Bhakti Yoga: Yoga related to devotion.
Jnana Yoga: That is Yoga related to knowledge.
Check Your Progress IV
1) What is mindfulness?
Mindfulness denotes awareness about ones thinking, the way one feels,
physical sensations and one’s surrounding in the present moment. It
mainly involves becoming non-judgmental in one’s awareness about
one’s thoughts and feelings.
2) What are the main characteristics of mindfulness according to KabatZinn?
The main characteristics of mindfulness according to Kabat-Zinn
(1990) are being nonjudgmental, cultivating patience, being open
minded, having trust, non-striving, acceptance and letting go.
Check Your Progress V
1) What is biofeedback?
Biofeedback is a technique of making unconscious or involuntary
bodily processes (as heartbeat or brainwaves) perceptible to the
senses (as by the use of an oscilloscope) in order to manipulate them
by conscious mental control.
6.11 UNIT END QUESTIONS
1) Discuss in detail relaxation technique.
2) Explain different types of meditation.
3) Discuss in detail various types of Asanas in Yoga.
4) Describe mindfulness.
5) Explain biofeedback as a technique of stress management.
Unit 7 : STRESS MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES II*
Structure
7. 0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Cognitive Restructuring
7.3 Time Management
7.3.1 Time Management Matrix
7.3.2 Techniques of Time Management
7.3 Let Us Sum Up
7.4 References
7.5 Key Words
7.6 Answers to Check Your Progress
7.7 Unit End Questions
7.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, you will be able to,
• explain cognitive restructuring.
• discuss time management.
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Let us start with an exercise
Rate the state of your mind right now at this instance on the scale given
below (you can circle the number):
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Unpleasant Pleasant
Some statements have been given below, you need to read each statement
and think of how it is applicable to you. You can even remember examples
of these statements in form of images.
• I have people around me who support me (remember the people and
instances when you received the support).
• I feel satisfied (remember the moments that generate these feelings).
• I have done certain things that make me very happy (remember the
moments that generate these feelings).
*Prof. Suhas Shetgovekar, Faculty, Discipline of Psychlogy, SOSS, IGNOU
Stress Management
90
• I have done well in life (remember the moments of your success).
• Life seems to be positive and meaningful (remember the moments
and people that generate these feelings).
• I have been appreciated many times (remember the moments and
events).
• I have done things that make me very happy (remember the moments
and events).
• I have helped and supported others in a meaningful manner
(remember the moments, events and people).
• I have moments of fun in my life (remember the moments and
events).
• I have taken good decisions (remember the moments and events).
Now re-rate the state of your mind right now on the scale below (you can
circle the number):
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Unpleasant Pleasant
It is more likely that your rating is higher later, that is, after remembering
the events based on the statements than before. This happens as you think
about all the positive things, events and people in your life. The exercise
also reflects the strength of positive thinking and attitude, which again can
help individuals deal effectively with stress.
In the previous Unit, we discussed about some of the stress management
techniques like relaxation, meditation, Yoga and biofeedback. In the present
Unit we will discuss some more techniques like cognitive restructuring and
time management.
7.2 Cognitive Restructuring
Cognitive restructuring can be described as “a process of replacing stress
provoking negative thoughts and beliefs with more constructive and realistic
ones which reduce cognitive appraisal of the threat” (Ghosh, 2015 pg. 185).
Thus, cognitive restructuring mainly involves changing the thinking process
and making it more rational and positive. For instance, if a student gets very
low marks in an examination, instead of thinking oneself as a failure, he/ she
can take a learning lesson and decide to try harder next time.
In this context, the ABCDE technique of Rational Emotive Behaviour
Therapy (REBT), that was proposed by Albert Ellis can be discussed. The
ABCDE technique has been given in figure 7.1.
As can be seen in figure 7.1, there is an activating event (A), that is perceived
based on one’s belief (B) which can be rational or irrational. This in turn
will have consequences (C), both emotional and behavioural. If a belief is
irrational it can be disputed (D) which includes detecting that the belief is
irrational, discriminating it from a rational belief and then debating it in
order to develop a rational belief. Lastly there is effect (E), that is nothing
but effect of disputing the irrational belief.
Figure 7.2: Example of ABCDE Technique
As can be seen in the above example, the activating event is ‘mistake made
by an individual during his/ her presentation at work’. To this he/ she can
either have a rational or irrational belief. A rational belief to this activating
event could be ‘It happens sometimes’, ‘a mistake is not end of the world’.
The consequence of a rational belief would be that the individual will feel
momentarily sad (emotional consequence), but he/ she will work harder
next time to avoid repeating the mistakes (behavioural consequence).
However, the individual could have irrational beliefs towards the activating
event like ‘I am inadequate’, ‘I am not good enough’, to which the emotional
consequence would be that the individual will feel dejected and he/ she
would give up and will avoid making presentations in future (behavioural
consequence).
It is important that the irrational beliefs are disputed by detecting,
discriminating and debating them (as can be seen in figure 7.1). Once the
individual is able to dispute the irrational belief, he/ she will develop a
more rational outlook towards the activating event, that will be the effect of
disputing. In this example, the individual will have to rationalise with one
self that just one mistake is not the end of the world and that such mistakes
happen sometimes and he/ she has much more potentialities and just this
mistake does not mean that he/ she is good for nothing or inadequate.
In our day to day lives as well we will come across numerous activating
events that evoke our beliefs. We need to ensure that we have a more rational
outlook towards these activating events. This in turn will help us manage
stress in an effective manner.
Box 7.1 : Stress Relieving Exercise
1) Take it seriously as if your whole life depends on it.
2) Look at a particular point in front of you.
3) Close your eyes.
4) Visualise a pleasant place or a happy moment of your life.
Imagine that you are there for a few moments.
5) Breath in deeply and breath out gently.
6) Focus on your breathing.
7) Feel your muscles relaxing as the stress goes out of your body.
8) Keep doing the breathing exercise for around five to ten minutes.
9) Have a positive self dialogue regarding any of your goals or a
difficulty or stress that you are facing. Assure yourself that you
will be able to achieve the goal you have in mind or will be able
to overcome the difficulty that you are facing.
10) Visualise the pleasant place or the happy moment of your life (as
above). Pretend that you are there for a few moments.
11) Count backwards from 25 to one.
12) Rub your palms together and put them on your eyes.
13) Open your eyes slowly.
Check Your Progress I
1) What is cognitive restructuring?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
2) State what ABCDE stand for in ABCDE technique.
A: ___________________________________
B: ___________________________________
C: ___________________________________
D: ___________________________________
E: ___________________________________
7.3 Time Management
Effective and systematic management of time could be a key to stress
management. Time is a precious resource and time management basically
involves making the best use of the time that one has. It also includes planning,
controlling the waste of time, implementation of various techniques to
manage time as well as carrying out evaluation that can help one improve.
Seaward (2014, pg. 147) explains time management as “prioritisation,
scheduling and execution of responsibilities to personal satisfaction”.
Main aspects that have been reflected in this definition are prioritisation,
scheduling and execution.
Prioritisation: Prioritisation involves listing tasks and responsibilities
according to their priority or how important and urgent they are to be carried
out. Here the difference needs to be made between what is urgent and what
is important. Based on urgency and importance, a time management matrix
was proposed by Stephen Covey, that will be discussed later in this section.
Also, in order to identify and direct our attention towards urgent tasks, ABC
rank order method (that will be discussed under planner system) can be
used, where A is assigned to urgent tasks, B to tasks with moderate urgency
and C to least urgent tasks.
Scheduling: Scheduling is related to assigning time schedule to each task.
It mainly deals with how to get the tasks done at the right time and also how
to carry them out. There are various techniques under scheduling that are
discussed as follows (Seaward, 2014):
Clustering: In clustering tasks can be grouped together. For example, bank
related work, shopping for vegetables and buying a gift for a friend can be
clustered together.
Time boxing: In time boxing, a large amount of time in a day, referred as
time box, is allotted for certain tasks. For instance, time box can be allotted
for writing assignments.
Dismantling: In dismantling, large tasks are broken down in to smaller
tasks that are comparatively easy to manage. For example, studying a certain
course can be divided based on units in course material/chapters given in a
book.
Scheduling is thus important in management of time. And while time
mapping (where, certain amount of time is assigned in order to carry out
various activities), some time can be allotted to carry out scheouling.
Execution: This has to do with actually carrying out the task as mere planning
and scheduling is not enough. Thus, one needs to be motivated enough to
carry out the task. One way to motivate one self is by self rewarding one’s
self for every completed task. These rewards could be tangible or intangible
or big or small. Though, it is a good idea to motivate oneself intrinsically to
carry out the task.
7.3.1 Time Management Matrix
In this matrix there are four quadrants based on the Urgency and Importance
of the task. When we say that a certain task is urgent, it means that it requires
immediate attention and when we refer a task as important, it means the task
in a way will contribute to our goals. The time management matrix is given
in figure 7.3
Fig. 7.3: Time Management Matrix
The first quadrant, is the quadrant that includes tasks that are Urgent and
Important. These tasks are absolutely necessary to be carried out. These are
the activities that one need to manage with top priority. Such tasks cannot
wait. For instance, if there is a medical emergency in an individual’s family,
immediate action needs to be taken.
The second quadrant is important but not urgent. These activities though
not urgent require one’s focus as they are important to be carried out. These
tasks also need to be focused on because they are significant in terms of
goals that are long term. For instance, exercising daily will improve one’s
health and will have long term benefits.
The third quadrant is urgent but not important. These are the activities that
could be avoided or could be delegated. This quadrant is also referred to as
quadrant of deception. The forth quadrant is not urgent and not important
and could result in waste of time and these again can be avoided.
Time management matrix can help one in one’s life to manage time
effectively. It is important to focus on the second quadrant that is related to
development on long term basis and focusing on this quadrant in a way will
help reduce the tasks in the first quadrant.
7.3.2 Techniques of Time Management
Planner System: One of the major techniques of time management is
Planner System. This system can help one make most of one’s time. This
planner system can be in form of a diary or a notebook or any other form
that one finds to be convenient. These days planners can be created on the
mobile phones or computers as well. In fact, many phone companies today
have planners as default apps as well. Once you adopt the planner system,
it is important that at least around ten minutes of a day are kept aside to do
the planning. Planner can be helpful in various ways. Planning will not only
provide clear picture of the activities to be carried out in a day but will also
help in preventing one from doing varied activities at wrong time in wrong
Stress Management ways. Also, it will bring one’s focus on the activities that need to be carried
out especially on priority basis.
A planner needs the following five things:
1) A place where tasks can be listed and priorities can be assigned to
them.
2) A place where notes and any follow up information can be recorded.
3) A place where goals and values can be mentioned.
4) A place where frequently referred information like addresses, phone
numbers, birthdays etc. can be mentioned.
5) The planner needs to be flexible enough to meet one’s needs.
As was mentioned earlier, the smart phones these days have the required
features to enable us to plan. However, the same needs to be adequately
used.
The following are the steps in planning:
Step 1: This includes developing a list of tasks that need to be carried out
each day. Here all tasks that are not routine could be mentioned. For instance:
• Call Manager of the Bank. (10:30 am)
• Wish Sara on her birthday (7:30 am)
• Buy a gift for Sara. (6:30 pm)
• Meeting with Project Supervisor (11:45 am)
• Get the Assignment ready. (4:30 pm)
• Pay electricity bill (10:00 am)
Step 2: A priority letter is assigned to each task on the list created in the
previous step. Here the ABC system could be used to assign priorities, where
A: Must do items (Items/ activities that must be completed).
B: Should do items (Items/ activities that should be completed).
C: Could do items (Items/ activities that could be completed)
For instance:
• Call Manager of the Bank. (10:30 am) A
• Wish Sara on her birthday (7:30 am) B
• Buy a gift for Sara. (6:30 pm) B
• Meeting with Project Supervisor (11:45 am) A
• Get the Assignment ready. (4: 30 pm) C
• Pay electricity bill (10:00 am) A
Step 3: Now a number is to assigned to the task
For instance:
• Call Manager of the Bank. (10:30 am) A2
• Wish Sara on her birthday (7:30 am) B1
• Buy a gift for Sara. (6:30 pm) B2
• Meeting with Project Supervisor (11:45 am) A1
• Get the Assignment ready. (4:30 pm) C1
• Pay electricity bill (10: 00 am) A3
Step 4: Symbols can be assigned for the status of the tasks.
• () Task has been completed. Colour coding also can be used.
• () When task needs to be rescheduled.
• (O) Task delegated to someone else.
• (X ) Task that has been deleted.
For instance:
• Call Manager of the Bank. (10:30 am) A2
• Wish Sara on her birthday (7:30 am) B1
• Buy a gift for Sara. (6:30 pm) B2 O
• Meeting with Project Supervisor (11: 45 am) A1 ×
• Get the Assignment ready. (4: 30 pm) C1 →
• Pay electricity bill (10: 00 am) A3 O
While creating a planner, it needs to be ensured that one’s goals and values
are incorporated in it and that one’s activities are in sync with them.
Blocking Time Wasters: Yet another way to manage time is by blocking
the time wasters. There could be time wasting mails and emails. It is good
idea to not let any paper work get piled up. Any time you receive a mail
or an email, go through it once thoroughly and then and there decide what
is to be done. Thus, they can either be filed, or responded to, passed on to
someone else or disposed off if felt unimportant. Sometimes time wasters
could also be people, in which case one needs to handle the situation in a
delicate manner. The person can be politely and specifically asked to meet
again or have a brief conversation without sounding sarcastic or accusing.
Delegation: Delegation can also be used whenever possible to manage time
effectively. Delegation is nothing but assigning the task to someone else.
For instance, if a manager wants a get together organized for the employees,
he/ she may delegate different tasks like arranging for food, arranging for
entertainment, sending out invites to the employees, to others. Most often
individuals do not delegate because they feel that they will be able to do the
task on their own, or lack confidence in others, or they fear that the person
delegated with work will take all the credit and recognition for completion
of the task or they lack the skill, time or both in delegating work to others.
In order to delegate effectively, one needs to trust others with responsibility.
They also need to be given necessary freedom to carry out the task. Though
delegation is effective in managing time, it could go wrong when there is a
communication gap or blocked communication between the delegator and
the delegatee or the delegator fails to follow-up or does not provide enough
freedom and authority to the delegatee to complete the task. Delegation
could also go wrong if the delegator is not clear in his/ her communication
of the task and its requirements.
Dealing with Procrastination: We discussed about procrastination under
Unit 3 that dealt with factors contributing to stress proneness. In order
to manage time effectively, one also needs to deal with procrastination.
Procrastination involves intentional postponement or delaying of task or
activities. Some of the valid reasons why one may procrastinate could be
because of stress, lack of information, caution and so on. However, one may
also procrastinate due to certain inappropriate causes like uncertainty, tasks
seems to be difficult to handle, perfectionism and also because one waits for
things to happen rather than take the matter in one’s hand. Procrastination
can be dealt by as follows:
• Certain issues problems that seem difficult can be tackled at one’s
body’s peak time, when one is fresh in mind and body and thus alert.
• Certain tasks that appear to be difficult can be broken down into
smaller tasks.
• Maintain a ‘to do’ list on daily basis and have a specific goal.
• Avoid perfectionism.
• Seek help from others as and when required.
Check Your Progress II
1) What is time boxing?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
2) List the steps in a planner.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
7.4 Let Us Sum Up
The present Unit is a continuation of the previous one and discusses two
more techniques of stress management, namely, cognitive restructuring
and time management. Cognitive restructuring can be described as a
process of replacing stress provoking negative thoughts and beliefs with
more constructive and realistic ones which reduces cognitive appraisal
of the threat. Thus, cognitive restructuring mainly involves changing the
thinking process and making it more rational and positive. In this context,
the ABCDE technique was also discussed with the help of an example. The
next technique discussed was time management. Effective and systematic
management of time could be a key to stress management. Time is a
precious resource and time management basically involves making the best
use of the time that one has. It also includes planning, controlling the waste
of time, implementation of various techniques to manage time as well as
carrying out evaluation that can help one improve. Time management can
be explained as “prioritization, scheduling and execution of responsibilities
to personal satisfaction”. The time management matrix was also discussed
in which there are four quadrants based on the Urgency and Importance of
the task. When we say that a certain task is urgent, it means that it requires
immediate attention and when we refer a task as important, it means the
task in a way will contribute to our goals. Further, various techniques of
time management like planner system, blocking time wasters, delegation
and dealing with procrastination were also discussed.
7.5 References
Bartram, D., & Gardner, D. (2008). Coping with Stress. In Practice, 30,
228-231.
Ghosh, M. (2015). Health Psychology: Concepts in Health and Wellbeing.
New Delhi: Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd.
Hawton, K., Salkovskis, P., Kirk, J., & Clark, D. (1989). Cognitive Behaviour
Therapy for Psychiatric Problems. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Sanderson, C. (2013). Health Psychology. USA: John Wiley and Sons Inc.
Schafer, W. (1998). Stress Management for Wellness. United States:
Thomson Wadsworth.
7.6 KEY WORDS
Cognitive restructuring: Cognitive restructuring can be described as a
process of replacing stress provoking negative thoughts and beliefs with
more constructive and realistic ones which reduce cognitive appraisal of
the threat.
Delegation: Delegation is assigning the task to someone else.
Time management: Time management can be explained as prioritisation,
scheduling and execution of responsibilities to personal satisfaction.
Time Management Matrix: In time management matrix, there are four
quadrants based on the Urgency and Importance of the task.
7.7 Answers to Check Your Progress
Check Your Progress I
1) What is cognitive restructuring?
Cognitive restructuring can be described as a process of replacing stress
provoking negative thoughts and beliefs with more constructive and realistic
ones which reduce cognitive appraisal of the threat.
2) State what ABCDE stand for in ABCDE technique.
A: Activating Event
B: Belief
C: Consequence
D: Disputing
E: Effect
Check Your Progress II
1) What is time boxing?
In time boxing, a large amount of time in a day, referred as time box, is
allotted for certain tasks. For instance, time box can be allotted for writing
assignments.
2) List the steps in a planner.
Step 1: This includes developing a list of tasks that need to be carried out
each day. Here all tasks that are not routine could be mentioned.
Step 2: A priority letter is assigned to each task on the list created in the
previous step.
Step 3: Now a number is to assigned to the task.
Step 4: Symbols can be assigned for the status of the tasks.
7. 8 UNIT END QUESTIONS
1) Discuss cognitive restructuring.
2) Explain ABCDE technique with the help of an example.
3) Describe time management matrix.
4) Discuss various techniques of time management.
Unit 8: STRESS MANAGEMENT
TECHNIQUES III*
Structure
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Interpersonal Skills
8.2.1 Effective Communication
8.2.2 Self Awareness
8.2.3 Emotional Intelligence
8.2.4 Conflict Resolution
8.3 Problem Solving
8.4 Let Us Sum Up
8.5 References
8.6 Key Words
8.7 Answers to Check Your Progress
8.8 Unit End Questions
8.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to,
• describe interpersonal skills.
• discuss problem solving.
8.1 INTRODUCTION
We all carry an invisible baggage with us, baggage of failures, challenges,
relationship issues, unfulfilled goals, lost opportunities and so on. With each
stressful event/ situation that we experience that elicits stress, the baggage
becomes larger and heavier as well. It is important that each of the issue in
the baggage is dealt with and coped with at the moment so that the baggage
doesn’t grow large or become unmanageable. Therefore, we need to practice
varied short term and long term stress management techniques that will help
us deal effectively with stress so that it remains below the optimal level and
does not put pressure on the individuals resources.
In the previous Units, Unit 6 and 7, we discussed about some of the
techniques of stress management. In the present Unit we will discuss two
more such techniques, namely interpersonal skills and problem solving.
*Prof. Suhas Shetgovekar, Faculty, Discipline of Psychlogy, SOSS, IGNOU
8.2 Interpersonal Skills
In unit four, we discussed about how stress can have an impact on
relationships. In this section we will discuss how enhancing interpersonal
skills can help us manage stress. Having effective interpersonal skills will
help in developing positive relationships with other individuals and this
could lead to lesser conflicts and positive communication and interactions.
And the outcome of this could be less stress.
The first thing though we need to do here is understand what are interpersonal
skills. In simple terms interpersonal skills can be described as the behaviours
and qualities that individuals display when they are interacting with others
(Kerr, 2019). It is also important to note that interpersonal skills can be
learned the way one can learn to swim or ride a bicycle, but they require
complete commitment and willingness on the part of the individual.
Let us now discuss some of the interpersonal skills that will help us deal
with stress.
8.2.1 Effective Communication
One of the most important aspect of interpersonal skills is developing
effective communication. The word communication has been derived
from a Latin term ‘communis’, meaning common/ sharing (Charlton
and Charles1879). Communication can be described as a process that is
continuous in nature and involves give and take of information. There are
necessarily two parties in the communication process who have the ability
to convey the information as well as listen. Feedback is an integral part
of effective communication and the message that is communicated can be
verbal (example: written or spoken) or it could be nonverbal (example: by
means of symbols, signs or gestures).
Let us now discuss some of the important aspects of effective communication
Active listening: Active listening denotes listening by paying full attention
to what the other person has to say. One can be active listener by following
the ways given below:
• To be an active listener, you need to stop talking and start listening.
• You need to put the speaker/other person at ease.
• The speaker /other person needs to feel or sense that you are willing
to listen and are paying full attention to what he/ she wants to say.
• Empathise with the speaker/other person.
• Display patience.
• Manage your emotions as you listen to what the speaker/other
person has to say.
• Ask questions wherever you need to clarify. And use paraphrasing
wherever required.
Ensure mutual understanding.
• Pay attention to the nonverbal behaviour of the speaker/ other person.
• Be nonjudgmental and keep an open mind while listening.
• Be conscious of your own nonverbal behaviour and maintain eye
contact and a relaxed posture.
Open to feedback: Communication is a two-way process and unless one is
open to feedback, he/ she will not know whether the information/ message
communicated by him/ her has actually been received and understood
by the other person(s)/ party/ receiver(s). This is an important aspect of
effective communication and one needs to be open to feedback in order to
ensure effective communication. When interacting with others, it would be
a healthy habit to seek and be open to feedback.
Paying attention to nonverbal behaviours: In communication, it is
important that we pay attention to nonverbal behaviours of others, as well
as, be conscious about our own nonverbal behaviour. Nonverbal behaviour
includes expression of feelings, emotions, opinions and so on through facial
expressions, gestures or bodily movements. Thus, from maintaining eye
contact to the way one stands or folds his/ her arms can all convey some
information. Some of the positive nonverbal behaviours include maintaining
regular eye contact, nodding one’s head when agreeing with what is
being said, leaning slightly forward as an indication of paying attention
or showing interest in what is being said and so on. Some of the negative
nonverbal behaviours include avoiding eye contact, excessive yawning thus
denoting lack of interest, slumped shoulders or head down denoting lack of
confidence and so on.
Managing communication barriers: There are various barriers to
communication that need to be identified and dealt with effectively. These
barriers can be categorised into physical, psychological and cultural barriers.
Examples of these barriers have been stated in table 8.1.
Table 8.1: Barriers to Communication
These barriers can be dealt with effectively in following ways:
• Ensure that there are no (or minimum) distractions/ disturbances
and noise so that the information can be easily communicated.
• Information communicated needs to be clear, brief as well as precise.
• Simple and meaningful language to be used.
• Avoid any miscommunication by choosing words carefully.
• Improve one’s listening skills and also seek feedback.
• Appropriate communication channel needs to be selected.
• Use instruments/ aids for communication that are in good shape and
work properly.
• Have the right attitude, avoid any preconceived notions and be
nonjudgmental.
• Develop effective speaking and writing skills.
• Improve one’s sense of timing while speaking.
• Manage emotions effectively.
• Repeat information as and when required.
For maintaining effective communication, you also need to avoid behaviours
like being distracted while listening to others or while communicating with
others, not providing any response and adequate feedback, putting others
down, interrupting others while they speak, being judgmental and overly
critical and so on.
Personal Space: This can be termed as an imaginary bubble around an
individual, that denotes the distance that the individual is comfortable when
interacting with others. As can be seen in figure 8.1, each one of us will
have this imaginary bubble around us. And this bubble has three walls, the
inner wall, the middle wall and the outer wall. As and when we interact with
others, we will do so by maintaining certain distance with them and this
distance will depend on the relationship that we have with these people. For
instance, when we are interacting with our family member, we may do so
within our internal wall (intimate zone), as shown in figure 8.2 (a). Where as
when interacting with our colleagues, whom we know quite well, we may
do so within the middle wall, but outside the inner wall (personal zone), as
shown in figure 8.2 (b) and when we are having a formal interaction, say
with a stranger, then we will do so in outer wall, outside the middle wall
(business zone), as shown in figure 8.2 (c). Personal space may vary not
only on the basis of formality of relationship, but also on the basis of age,
gender, and other aspects of the other person as well as on the situation.
Further, culture can also have an impact on personal space of an individual.
We naturally tend to maintain this personal bubble as and when we interact
with others. Therefore, it is important to be aware of one’s own personal
space as well as that of others when engaging in communication with others
as any intrusion in personal space can make the other person uncomfortable
and communication can get hindered.
8.2.2 Self Awareness
Self awareness is yet another relevant aspect in order to enhance one’s
interpersonal skills. Before we look outside, we need to look within us
and be aware about one’s potentialities and weaknesses. Crisp and Turner
(2010, pg. 2) define self awareness as “realisation of oneself as an individual
entity”. In simple terms it can be described as the extent of awareness about
one’s own feelings, thoughts and behaviours. It is very important that one
is aware not only about one’s strengths and weakness but also opportunities
and threats.
In the context of self awareness, we can discuss about the JOHARI window
(refer to figure 8.3).
Fig.: 8.2: Different Zones of Personal Space
Fig. 8.3: JOHARI Window
Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham were two American Psychologists
who developed JOHARI window. The name of this window is in fact
a combination of their names Joe and Harry. It is also referred to as
Disclosure/ Feedback Model of Self Awareness. The window can be used
to see how an individual represents his/ her feelings, views, attitudes and
so on in relation to others. As can be seen in the figure 8.3, there are four
windows. The first window is ‘Arena’ that represents, information, views,
attitudes, feelings that are known to self as well as known to others. The
second window is ‘Closed’ that represents, information, views, attitudes,
feelings that are known to self but not known to others. The third window
is ‘Blind’ that represents, information, views, attitudes, feelings that are
not known to self but known to others. And the fourth window is ‘Dark’
represents, information, views, attitudes, feelings that are not known to self
as well as not known to others. Though in the figure 8.3, all the windows
are of equal size, in reality they may not be equal and there could be some
individuals with larger Arena window than other windows and there could
be others with larger Closed window and so on. You may have come across
persons who may not share much about self, such people will have larger
Closed window. On the other hand, there could be individuals who may not
be aware about his/ her own behaviour as others do about them and such
individuals will have larger Blind window.
In order to have positive interpersonal relationships we need to not only
develop self awareness but suitably engage in appropriate self disclosure.
Self awareness with reference to one’s stress is also important and one needs
to be aware or needs to be able to identify what is causing stress in him/ her,
the effect of stress and so on.
Box 8.1: Exercise: Questions to cultivate self awareness about your stress
1) What event (s)/ situation (s) causes stress in you?
2) What is the source of stress experienced by you (frustration, conflict of
motives, pressure)?
3) What are the symptoms experienced by you?
4) What are the beliefs displayed by you when experiencing stress? Are
these rational or irrational?
5) What coping strategy/ies do you think you adopt?
6) What stress management techniques do you find effective while dealing
with your stress?
8.2.3 Emotional Intelligence
Emotional intelligence can also be termed as an aspect of interpersonal
skills that can help in dealing with stress. Emotional intelligence can be
described as “the ability to monitor one’s own and others’ feelings and
emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this information to guide
one’s thinking and actions” (Salovey & Mayer, 1990, pg. 189). In 1997,
the definition was modified and emotional intelligence was defined as “the
ability to (a) perceive emotions, (b) use emotions to facilitate thought, (c)
understand emotions, and (d) manage emotions” (Brackett and Salovey,
2006, pg. 34). Emotional intelligence can simply be explained as a process
that involves recognising, using, understanding and managing one’s own
emotions as well as those of others (Brackett and Salovey, 2006). Though
the concept of emotional intelligence was developed by Salovey and Mayer,
it mainly gained popularity when the book “Emotional Intelligence: Why
it can matter more than IQ” was published by Goleman in 1995. Goleman
stated five main components of emotional intelligence that are discussed as
follows:
Self awareness: We discussed earlier about self awareness. This is one of
the components of emotional intelligence that can help an individual identify
and manage his/ her emotions effectively.
Self regulation: This mainly denotes the self control that an individual has
in expressing one’s emotions. This is important as when we are not able to
control our emotions, it can lead to impaired reasoning and the outcome can
be detrimental.
Self motivation: Individuals need to be driven by internal forces rather than
external forces as when an individual is self motivated he/ she will pursue
the goal with much more enthusiasm, energy and passion.
Empathy: We need to empathise with others and by empathy we mean we
need to comprehend the emotions and feelings displayed by others.
Social skills: Social skills can help build and maintain positive interpersonal
relationships.
Thus, in order to develop one’s emotional intelligence, one needs to focus on
the above components. He/ she will need to enhance his/ her self awareness,
cultivate self regulation, motivate oneself, learn to empathise with others
and develop social skills.
As you may notice, most of these concepts (like self awareness and empathy)
have been discussed earlier in this Unit as well, which indicates the
relevance and interconnectedness between these varied concepts. Thus, self
awareness in itself is also relevant as it is relevant to enhance one’s emotional
intelligence and empathy is relevant in the context of communication as
well as in emotional intelligence. Developing one’s social skills will also
enhance overall communication and interaction with others.
8.2.4 Conflict Resolution
Interpersonal relationships can be majorly hindered by interpersonal
conflicts. Thus, conflict resolution is relevant when we discuss about
interpersonal skills. In simple terms conflict can be explained as some kind
of incompatibility between two or more parties. The parties here can be two
or more individuals, could be colleagues, couples, groups or even nations.
Though our focus in this Unit is mainly on interpersonal conflict that can
occur between individuals.
Conflict resolution denotes ways in which conflict can be dealt with or
resolved. Some of the conflict resolution strategies include:
Avoiding: This denotes withdrawal from conflict. Though, in this case the
actual conflict may not resolve. But individuals may use this when they
feel that confrontation or engaging in conflict is not worthwhile and the
discomfort that they may experience while in conflict is much more than
when they avoid it.
Competing: This is used by individuals who engage in conflict necessarily
to win. This is a win- loose situation. Individuals using this may display
assertiveness but not cooperation.
Accommodating: In this case, the individual is cooperative and not
assertive. Though, this again may not be healthy as one of the parties may
just give in and as such the conflict remains unresolved. This is a loose- win
strategy.
Collaborating: In this, individuals are assertive as well as cooperative and
the parties may come up with an agreed solution to resolve the conflict. This
can also be termed as win-win strategy.
Compromising: In this each of the party will compromise in some way.
Thus, there is partial cooperation and assertiveness. And though, the parties
may not be completely satisfied, they are not dissatisfied as well.
Check Your Progress I
1) What is Communication?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
2) List the cultural barriers to communication.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
3) State the three walls of personal space or bubble?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
4) What is self awareness?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
5) List the five components of emotional intelligence.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
6) List the conflict resolution strategies
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
8.3 Problem Solving
Yet another technique that can be used to manage stress is problem solving.
In simple terms it can be described as a process where we seek solution to
a problem at hand.
It can also be explained as a mental process that includes discovery, analysis
of the problem in order to find a solution for it (Cherry, 2019). Mayer (2013)
described problem solving as a cognitive process that involves attempts to
achieve a goal, with no idea about how the goal can be achieved. As per this
definition, a problem is faced when an individual comes across an obstacle
which he/ she is not able to tackle and thus he/ she cannot reach the goal.
Problems can be categorised into the following:
Routine problems and non-routine problems: Routine problems can be
described as problems for which immediate solution is available. Whereas,
a non-routine problem is a problem for which solution is not easily or
immediately available and thus, analysis needs to be carried out.
Well-defined and ill-defined or poorly defined problems: Well-defined
problems have goals that are clear and further the problem can also be
divided in to sub goals. On the other hand, for ill-defined problems, the goal
is not clear and specific.
Problem solving process mainly involves identification of problem,
brainstorming for ideas and solutions, selecting a solution and implementing
the plan of action and reflecting on the effectiveness of the solution. And
these can also be termed as steps in problem solving that are discussed as
follows:
Step 1 – Identification of problem: This is the first step involved in problem
solving, where the problem needs to be identified and defined. At this stage
focus should also be on what actually is causing the problem. The situation
is thus diagnosed and the focus is not just on the symptoms. One can devote
some time to this process and even a description about the problem can be
written down. Individual can also ask certain questions to himself/ herself,
like, what exactly is the problem? when does it take place? and where? Can
any situation or person (though blaming needs to be avoided) be identified
who may be associated with the problem? what is his/ her thinking pattern,
emotions and feelings as a result of experiencing the problem? This step
helps the individual become more and more aware about the problem.
Step 2 – Brainstorming for ideas and solutions: This is the second step in
problem-solving process, where, once the problem is defined (and is thus
clear), the individual can now try and identify possible solutions for the
problem. While doing so, cues can also be taken from the way the individual
sorted his/ her problems effectively in the past and help can also be sought
from significant others in the individual’s life.
Step 3 – Selecting a solution: Once the individual has possible solutions,
he/she can then select a solution that he/ she feels is appropriate to solve
the problem. While doing so the individual needs to look at the solution
realistically and also think about what feelings and emotions will be generated
if particular solutions are used. Further, the possible consequences, both
positive and negative, also need to be focused on. It is also important to
focus on the individual’s resources that may be required to implement the
solution along with consideration of any other issues that may arise if the
solution is implemented.
Step 4 – Implementing the plan: Once the problem as well as the solution
is identified, it is time to implement the solution and work accordingly in
direction of solving the problem.
Step 5 – Reflecting on the effectiveness of the solution: During this the
individual needs to reflect on whether the solution selected by him/ her
has given positive results or not and whether the problem was resolved.
Further, if any lacunae or loopholes were noticed in the implementation of
the solution, the same can also be focused on.
Since the concept of problem solving and the steps in problem solving are
clear, let us discuss about the strategies of problem solving as given below:
Trial and error: One way in which problems can be dealt is by trial and
error. Here the individual will keep on trying varied solutions till he/ she is
able to solve the problem. This strategy can be time consuming.
Heuristics: Heuristics can be explained as rules of thumb that are used in
order to obtain easy and fast solutions. Though, the solution derived may
not be the most adequate or appropriate to solve the problem. In a way,
heuristics can also be referred to as mental shortcuts that minimise the
investment of time as well as attention.
Algorithm: This mainly involves stepwise approach to solving the problem.
Using this strategy will maximise the chances that the solution selected will
be adequate and appropriate. Though, this strategy may be time consuming
and may involve numerous steps.
Insight: During problem solving process, individuals may have an insight,
where solution may suddenly occur.
Thus, problem solving as well can be used effectively to deal with stress.
In the second block of this course, we discussed about various stress
management techniques. Based on the nature of stress experienced by you,
you can decide which techniques help you deal with stress effectively. One
needs to use both short term and long term techniques to deal with stress.
Besides the various techniques discussed, it is also important to seek
adequate social support and ask for help as and when required. Further, it is
also important to maintain a healthy lifestyle including healthy food habits,
regular exercise and diet. Also unhealthy coping and unhealthy lifestyle
need to be avoided. It is also important to pursue one’s hobbies and interest
and take regular breaks from one’s busy schedule for self.
As responsible human beings it is important to be sensitive to stress
experienced by others and to lend a listening ear and a helping hand as and
when required.
Check Your Progress II
1) List the steps in problem solving process.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
8.4 Let Us Sum Up
To summarise, in the present Unit we discussed about two more stress
management techniques, namely, interpersonal skills and problem solving.
We discussed how enhancing interpersonal skills can help us manage
stress. Having effective interpersonal skills will help in developing positive
relationship with other individuals and this could lead to lesser conflicts and
positive communication and interactions. And the outcome of this could
be less stress. In simple terms interpersonal skills can be described as the behaviours and qualities that individuals display when they are interacting
with others. Various interpersonal skills that could help us deal with
effectively stress were discussed including effective communication, self
awareness, emotional intelligence and conflict resolution. Communication
can be described as a process that is continuous in nature and involves
give and take of information. There are necessarily two parties in the
communication process who have the ability to convey the information
as well as listen. Some of the relevant aspects of effective communication
include active listening, open to feedback, paying attention to non verbal
behaviour, managing communication barriers and personal space. These
were also discussed in detail in the present Unit. The second skill discussed
was self awareness. Before we look outside, we need to look within us and
be aware about one’s potentialities and weaknesses. In simple terms it can be
described as the extent of awareness about one’s own feelings, thoughts and
behaviours. In this context the JOHARI window was also discussed with the
help of a figure. The next skill that was discussed was emotional intelligence.
Emotional intelligence can also be termed as an aspect of interpersonal skill
that can help in dealing with stress. Emotional intelligence can simply be
explained as a process that involves recognising, using, understanding and
managing one’s own emotions as well as those of others. Goleman stated
five main components of emotional intelligence, namely, self awareness,
self regulation, self motivation, empathy and social skills. The last skill
discussed under interpersonal skills was conflict resolution. Interpersonal
relationships can be majorly hindered by interpersonal conflicts. Thus,
conflict resolution is relevant when we discuss about interpersonal skills.
Conflict can be explained as some kind of incompatibility between two or
more parties. And conflict resolution denotes ways in which conflict can
be dealt with or resolved. Some of the conflict resolution strategies include
avoiding, competing, accommodating, collaborating and compromising.
Yet another technique of stress management that was discussed in this Unit
was problem solving. Problem solving can be described as a process where
we seek solution to a problem at hand. It can also be explained as a mental
process that includes discovery, analysis of the problem in order to find a
solution for it. Problems can be categorised into routine and non-routine
problems and well-defined and ill-defined or poorly defined problems. The
steps in problem solving include identification of problem, brainstorming
for ideas and solutions, selecting a solution and implementing the plan
of action and reflecting on the effectiveness of the solution. Strategies of
problem solving, namely, trial and error, heuristics, algorithm and insight
were also briefly discussed.
8.5 References
Bartram, D., & Gardner, D. (2008). Coping with Stress. In Practice, 30,
228-231.
Brackett, M. A., & Salovey, P. (2006). Measuring emotional intelligence
with the Mayer-Salovery-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT).
Psicothema 18 Suplem 1, pages 34-41 retrieved from http://www.
psicothema.com/psicothema.asp?id=3273 on 27th November, 2019.
Charlton T. L., & Short, C. (1879) A Latin Dictionary, Oxford: Clarendon
Press.
Cherry, K. (2019). Overview of the Problem-Solving Mental Process retrieved
from https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-problem-solving-2795485 on
30th November, 2019 at 10:00 pm.
Crisp, R. J., & Turner, R. N. (2010). Essential Social Psychology. New
Delhi: Sage Publications Asia- Pacific Pte Ltd.
Conflict Management Techniques, retrieved from https://www.hrpersonality.
com/resources/conflict-management-techniques on 27th November, 2019 at
11:05 pm.
Ghosh, M. (2015). Health Psychology: Concepts in Health and Wellbeing.
New Delhi: Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd.
Hawton, K., Salkovskis, P., Kirk, J., & Clark, D. (1989). Cognitive Behaviour
Therapy for Psychiatric Problems. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Kerr, M. (2019). What are Interpersonal Skills: Definition, Examples &
Importance, retrieved from https://resumegenius.com/blog/resume-help/
interpersonal-skills on 26th November, 2019 at 2:00 pm.
Mayer, R. E. (2013). Problem Solving in Psychology, Cognitive
Psychology, Online Publication Date: Jun 2013. DOI: 10.1093/
oxfordhb/9780195376746.013.0048.
Salovey, P. & Mayer, J. D. (1990). Emotional Intelligence. Imagination,
Cognition and Personality, 9, 185-211.
Salovey, P., Bedell, B. T., Detweiler, J. B., & Mayer, J. D. (2000). Current
directions in emotional intelligence research. In M. Lewis & J. M. HavilandJones (eds.): Handbook of emotions (2nd edition, pp. 504-520). New York:
Guilford.
Salovey, P., Mayer, J. D., & Caruso, D. (2002). The Positive Psychology
of Emotional Intelligence. In C.R. Synder & S. López (eds.): Handbook of
Positive Psychology (pp. 159-171). New York: Oxford.
Sanderson, C. (2013). Health Psychology. USA: John Wiley and Sons Inc.
Shrestha, P. (2017). Problem Solving Strategies retrieved from https://www.
psychestudy.com/cognitive/thinking/problem-solving-strategies on 30th
November, 2019 at 11:00 pm.
Schafer, W. (1998). Stress Management for Wellness. United States:
Thomson Wadsworth.
Stress management, retrieved from https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthylifestyle/stress-management/in-depth/stress-management/art-20044502 on
29th November, 2019 at 8:15 pm.
5 Conflict Resolution Strategies We All Use, retrieved from https://
theparticipationcompany.com/2016/06/5-conflict-resolution-strategies/ on
27th November, 2019 at 11:00 pm.
What is Problem Solving?, retrieved from https://asq.org/quality-resources/
problem-solving on 28th November, 2019 at 11:30 pm.
8.6 KEYWORDS
Active listening: Active listening denotes listening by paying full attention
to what the other person has to say.
Communication: Communication can be described as a process that is
continuous in nature and involves give and take of information.
Conflict: Conflict can be explained as some kind of incompatibility between
two or more parties. The parties here can be two or more individuals, could
be colleagues, couples, groups or even nations.
Conflict resolution: Conflict resolution denotes ways in which conflict can
be dealt with or resolved.
Emotional Intelligence: Emotional intelligence can be described as
the ability to monitor one’s own and others’ feelings and emotions, to
discriminate among them and to use this information to guide one’s thinking
and actions.
Interpersonal Skills: Interpersonal skills can be described as the behaviours
and qualities that individuals display when they are interacting with others.
Nonverbal behaviour: Nonverbal behaviour includes expression of
feelings, emotions, opinions and so on through facial expressions, gestures
or bodily movements.
Personal Space: This can be termed as an imaginary bubble around an
individual, that denotes the distance that the individual is comfortable when
interacting with others.
Problem solving: Problem solving is a mental process that includes
discovery, analysis of the problem in order to find a solution for it.
Self awareness: Self awareness can be described as the extent of awareness
about one’s own feelings, thoughts and behaviours.
8.7 Answers to Check Your Progress
Check Your Progress I
1) What is Communication?
Communication can be described as a process that is continuous in
nature and involves give and take of information.
2) List the cultural barriers to communication.
The cultural barriers to communication are:
• Language
• Demographic factors like age, gender and so on.
• Stereotype
• Prejudices
3) State the three walls of personal space or bubble?
The three walls of personal space or bubble are, inner wall, the middle
wall and the outer wall.
4) What is self awareness?
Self awareness can be described as the extent of awareness about
one’s own feelings, thoughts and behaviours.
5) List the five components of emotional intelligence.
The five components of emotional intelligence are:
• Self awareness
• Self regulation
• Self motivation
• Empathy
• Social skills
6) List the conflict resolution strategies.
The conflict resolution strategies are:
• Avoiding
• Competing
• Accommodating
• Collaboration
• Compromising
Check Your progress II
1) List the steps in problem solving process.
Step 1 Identification of problem
Step 2 Brainstorming for ideas and solutions
Step 3 Selecting a solution
Step 4 Implementing the plan
Step 5 Reflecting on the effectiveness of the solution
8.8 UNIT END QUESTIONS
1) Discuss in detail communication as a component of interpersonal
skills.
2) Explain personal bubble.
3) Discuss self awareness with a focus on JOHARI window.
4) Define emotional intelligence and discuss its five components.
5) Describe conflict resolution strategies.
6) Explain problem solving with a focus on its steps and strategies.
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Press.
Gregson, S. (2000). Stress Management. Mankato, MN: Capstone Press.
Hancock, P. A., & Desmond, P. A. (2008). Stress, Workload and fatigue.
Boca Raton, Fla: CRC Press.
Hariharan, M., & Rath, R. (2008). Coping with Life Stress. New Delhi:
Sage Publication.
Johnson, S. L., Hayes, A. M., Field, T., Schneiderman, N. & McCabe, P. M.
(2000). Stress, Coping, and Depression. New Jersey: Lawerence Erlbaum
Associates.
Lazarus, R. S. & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, Appraisal and Coping. New
York: Van Nostrand.
Linden, W. (2005). Stress Management. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: SAGE
Publications.
Sarafino, E. (2004). Behavior Modification. Long Grove, IL: Waveland
Press.
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