BEGS-183 Writing and Study Skills Text Book
BLOCK 1
IMPROVING THE BASICS
UNIT 1
Developing Critical, Analytical and Interpretive Thinking Skills 04
UNIT 2
Enhancing Vocabulary 15
UNIT 3
Improving Grammar and Punctuation Skills 30
Introduction To The Course ‘Writing And Study Skills’ (BEGS 183)
Welcome to this course! This is probably going to be amongst the most important courses
that you will ever do because it will skill you in many aspects that are important to you in
your academic life and later in your life at the workplace. It lays the foundations for good
writing skills and equips you with tools to constantly refine your own writing processes. It
consists of 3 blocks and has 11 units. It is awarded 4 credits.
Before we begin writing, we need to critically reflect on our experiences, our belief
structures, our understanding of various issues, and so on. The first unit ‘Developing critical,
analytical, and interpretive thinking skills’ will enable you to look critically and closely at
aspects of your thinking and writing and that of others. This will greatly enhance your writing
ability. Units 2 and 3 will improve your vocabulary and revise aspects of grammar and
punctuation which create problems for you when you write. In other words, the first Block
helps you in ‘Improving the Basics’.
Block 2 ‘Writing Effectively’ helps you with the basic strategies that any writer needs when
writing a satisfactory piece of writing. Unit 1 of this block, “The basics of writing” helps you
to reflect on your purpose of writing, planning your work, researching appropriately and
thinking about who your readers are likely to be. In other words, it takes you through the
entire process of writing. Unit 2: “Developing different types of paragraphs”, concentrates
on writing paragraphs and gives you practice in writing different types of paragraphs. Unit 3
helps you organise different genres of composition. The last unit, “Different types of writing”
is a revision of all the writing activities that you normally perform as a student.
Block 3 ‘Note Taking’ is about study skills which are very important for you in your
academic life. How to take and make notes, how to summarise class lectures as well as
articles from journals and books and how to intelligently use this information to prepare for
examinations – all these are emphasised in this cluster of four units. We assure you, if you
read through this material thoroughly, you will be able to greatly improve your writing and
study skills. The units are as follows:
Block 1: Improving the basics
Unit 1: Developing critical, analytical and interpretive thinking skills
Unit 2: Enhancing vocabulary
Unit 3: Improving grammar and punctuation skills
Block 2: Writing effectively
Unit 1: The basics of writing
Unit 2: Developing different types of paragraphs
Unit 3: Writing a composition
Unit 4: Different types of writing
Block 3: Note Taking
Unit 1: Learning study skills
Unit 2: Techniques of note taking: Main and subordinate points
Unit 3: Techniques of note taking: Use of tables and diagrams
Unit 4: Making effective summaries
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BLOCK 1 IMPROVING THE BASICS
Introduction:
Block 1 Improving the Basics has three units. It is an important block as it sets the
foundation for the rest of the course.
As you are aware, before we begin to write, we have to research our topic, gather our
thoughts together, plan an outline, think of our audience and only then begin writing.
In order to carry out these activities, we need to critically reflect on what we have learnt and
assimilated through our research as well as consider the social dimensions of the genre we are
writing in. Further, we need to analyse and interpret complex arguments and synthesise a
variety of sources and put them meaningfully together. Unit1 Developing Critical,
Analytical and Interpretive Writing Skills helps you to process all these factors.
In Unit 2 Enhancing Vocabulary we give you insights and strategies to improve your
vocabulary. Unit 3 Improving Grammar and Punctuation Skills revises some areas of
grammar and punctuation which students find a bit problematic. These are tools to make you
a good writer.
Please go through the units carefully and be sure to attempt all the activities. Good luck!
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT:
The material we have used is purely for educational purposes. Every effort has been made to
trace the copyright holders of material used in this book. Should any infringement have
occurred, the publishers and editors apologise, and will be pleased to make the necessary
corrections in future editions of this book. Units 2 and 3 of Block 1 have been adapted from
the material of the CTE programme of IGNOU.
UNIT 1: DEVELOPING CRITICAL, ANALYTICAL AND
INTERPRETIVE THINKING SKILLS
Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Thinking Critically as a Writer, Reader and Troubleshooter
1.2.1 Strategies for Reading Critically
1.2.2 Thinking Critically as a Writer
1.3 Analysing as a Strategy
1.3.1 Synthesizing as a Writer’s Strategy
1.4 Interpretive Thinking Skills
1.5 Let Us Sum Up
1.6 Suggested Readings
1.7 Answers
1.0 OBJECTIVES
This Unit is about giving you some thinking tools which will make you a better writer, reader
and thinker. All these tools will help you become a more reflective person who has the
capacity to self-question and dispassionately analyse, synthesize and interpret different kinds
of material that you come across and which you can use in your writing.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Two of your friends are arguing about flattening the curve of the spread of Covid 19 in your
region. Each friend has many suggestions to offer – each is presenting statistics, words of
experts and hypothetical situations that may arise. The thoughts and interpretation on one side
of the argument seem to directly contradict the figures and arguments of other experts.
So which side would you take? Why? What other points would you consider? How would
you know which side offers more cogent arguments?
Every day we are faced with such situations and have to take considered decisions. We have
to think intelligently about what we hear and read before we feel confident about any issue.
We need to practise analysing our beliefs and those of others and evaluate them by looking at
the reasons. So thinking critically does not mean that we have to contradict others always –
all we need to do is to examine opinions closely and in-depth before we accept them.
So thinking critically means the ability to analyse, interpret and evaluate our own ideas and
those of others. Since we are constantly bombarded with ideas, data and other bits of
information we need to examine these carefully before we accept or reject them. In other
word, we need to become reflective thinkers.
1.2 THINKING CRITICALLY AS A WRITER, READER AND
TROUBLESHOOTER
When you being to write, you need to think critically in two important ways:
1) You need to think critically about all the information that you have collated from
different sources, i.e. books, journals, internet, etc.
2) You need to be a critical listener as you hear about other people’s experiences, beliefs
and ideas.
1.2.1 Strategies for Reading Critically
Before you write, you need to read and listen. So let us begin with strategies for reading
critically. How do you become a thoughtful reader? Well, a thoughtful reader is one who
must patiently read information concerned not only with simple comprehension of facts but
also be mindful of inferring, interpreting, analysing and evaluating the ideas in a text. S/he
must be aware that one must adopt different strategies for reading different types of texts. On
the one hand, you are trying to understand a text on its own terms, and on the other hand, you
are critically questioning the ideas and language in it.
We will discuss some of the critical reading strategies which will enrich your thinking as a
reader and will also be helpful when you play the role of a critical writer. The ideas given
below are an adaptation from Axelrod and Cooper (2012)
Annotating: This entails recording your reactions to a text, your interpretation and
questions as you read along. These are notes you write as you read along.
Taking inventory: Listing and grouping your annotations so that you find meaningful
patterns. This would require looking for repetitions such as recurring images, stylistic
features such as repeated words or phrases, repeated examples or illustration. These
patterns may reveal something about the reading text.
Outlining: Listing the text’s main ideas or the gist of the text as well as important
supporting details.
Summarizing: Distilling the main ideas or gist of a text.
Synthesizing: Integrating your own ideas with the information learned from other
sources.
Contextualizing: Placing the reading text in its historical and cultural context and
asking whether it would be useful for your context.
Explaining the significance of figurative language: This is when you examine how
metaphors, similes, personification and other such literary devices are used in a text to
convey meaning and evoke feelings.
Reflecting on challenges to our beliefs and value: This refers to texts which may
contradict some of your core ideas and beliefs. Instead of dismissing these, it would
be a good idea to think again about your ideas and belief system.
Evaluating the topic of an argument: This entails understanding whether the
arguments presented by the writer is well reasoned and adequately supported.
Recognizing emotional manipulation: This is being aware whether the text is
unfairly manipulating you, based on false or exaggerated claims.
Judging the writer’s credibility: This means identifying whether the writer
represents different points of view and has satisfactory information about what s/he is
writing about.
(Adapted from Alexrod and Cooper,2012)
These strategies of critically reading texts, would aid you immensely in the writing process
and make you a reflective writer with a vision and with considered and rational opinions.
Similar strategies would be applicable when you are listening to a lecture.
Check your progress 1
What are the strategies that you use to be a critical reader?
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1.2.2 Thinking Critically as a Writer
When you being drafting your essay or assignment or story, you must be a critical thinker in
another way. You have to become your toughest reader-critic. You must develop the skill of
objectively reviewing what you have written at every stage. The questions you could ask
yourself are:
1) Do my ideas appear clear and logical not only to me but also to my readers?
2) Will my readers find my opinions well developed and well supported?
3) Does my writing reflect my core beliefs in a considered, well-thought of way?
In order to be a reflective person, one needs to be aware of the following issues:
i) Learn to differentiate fact from opinion: Remember a fact remains true, no matter
who presents it. Some statements are considered facts because they have been
verified by research and generally accepted by everyone. We accept as a fact that
dogs are domestic animals and tigers are wild animals. We also know as factual
information that Rajiv Gandhi was assassinated by Sri Lankan terrorists.
However, John F Kennedy’s murder is speculative and a matter of opinion. Some
people say Lee Harvey Oswald killed him, others say there were two shooters, and
some even blame the CIA for this.
ii) Support your opinions with evidence: These could be examples and illustrations,
statistics, opinions of experts or even experiences of family and friends. The more
convincing the evidence, the more likely readers are able to accept your views as
true.
iii) Evaluate the strength of your evidence: As you choose your evidence, you should
ask yourself the question, “Are these points supporting my topic sentence?” If you
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are using statistics or any other material, be sure it is from a reliable source. You
must be certain that your experts are unbiased and their research is careful and
professional. Always acknowledge your sources (It amounts to plagiarism if you
do not do so). In other words, you must develop a critical eye for choosing the
best evidence to support your topic.
As you go through your writing – even parts of it – look at it from the point of
view of the reader. Readers need to see relevance and clarity as they read along.
Keep asking yourself questions such as “Do I need more material here to buttress
my arguments?” “Am I vague here?” “Am I being too general here?” “Can I
improve my sentence structure here?” “Should I consult a thesaurus for more
enriched vocabulary?” and so on.
iv) Avoid biases and strong emotions: As you think critically about the evidence you
are using, be sure to monitor any prejudices and strong emotional attitudes that
may distort the information that you are presenting – especially in argumentative
and persuasive essays. Please be sure that you are sensitive to gender, caste, racial
or religious issues. At the same time, you need to be aware of stereotypes such as
“All girls like pink colour.”“Or Japanese/German cars are best in the world.”
(Some ideas adapted from Wyrick,2005)
Critical thinking involves much more than the points mentioned here. To be a reflective
person is a lifelong endeavour. To be a critical writer, you have to develop into a person of
reflection and reason.
1.3 ANALYSING AS A STRATEGY
While writing we need to develop the skill of analysing as well as synthesizing. Analysing is
more a reading strategy while synthesizing is a writing strategy. Both go hand-in-hand.
What is it that happens when we analyse something? Analysing involves pulling things apart.
When we analyse an argument for instance, we need to read it closely and critically. Let us
first look at the criteria for analysing arguments. According to Axelrod and Cooper (2012),
analysing arguments involve two categories: basic features and motivating factors.
Let us now give you an example of analysing arguments. Before that let us discuss the
criteria of analysing arguments. First, look at the basic features:
Issues: What does the writer wish to address? – What problems or issues.
How does the writer define or frame the issues?
Position: What are the writer’s own views on the issue? This would normally be the
‘thesis statement’ of the essay.
Arguments: What evidence does the writer provide to support his/her position? These
could be facts, examples, expert opinions, statistics and so on.
Counterargument: How does the writer refute the opposite point of view? Does s/he
concede to some of the opposing arguments? How strong are the writer’s own views
versus the opponent?
Then there are certain factors which could be explicitly stated or even implied in the
writer’s arguments. These are known as motivating factors.
Values: These include moral, ethical or ideological considerations of the writer,
which would inevitably creep into any piece of writing.
Needs and interests: This would include the need of the writer to press for any
burning issues in his/her life.
Priorities / Concerns: What are the fears and concerns of the writer? These would
inevitably become the writer’s priority.
(Some of the ideas adapted from Alexrod and Cooper,2012)
Read these two paragraphs and answer some of the questions which will show you how
arguments are built up.
Passage 1
This book, Animal Liberation, is about the tyranny of human over non-human animals. This
tyranny has caused and today is still causing an amount of pain and suffering that can only be
compared with that which resulted from the centuries of tyranny by white humans over black
humans. The struggle against this tyranny is a struggle as important as any of the moral and
social issues that have been fought over in recent years.
Passage2
This book is an attempt to think through, carefully and consistently, the question of how we
ought to treat non-human animals. In the process it exposes the prejudices that lie behind our
present attitudes and behaviour. In the chapters that describe what these attitudes mean in
practical terms – how animals suffer from the tyranny of human beings – there are passages
that will arouse some emotions. These will, I hope, be emotions of anger and outrage,
coupled with a determination to do something about the practices described. Nowhere in this
book, however, do I appeal to the reader’s emotions where they cannot be supported by
reason. When there are unpleasant things to be described it would be dishonest to try to
describe them in some neutral way that hid their real unpleasantness. You cannot write
objectively about the experiments of the Nazi concentration camp “doctors” on those they
considered “subhuman” without stirring emotions; and the same is true of a description of
some of the experiments performed today on non-humans in laboratories in America, Britain,
and elsewhere. The ultimate justification for opposition to both these kinds of experiments,
though, not emotional. It is an appeal to basic moral principles which we all accept, and the
application of these principles to the victims of both kinds of experiment is demanded by
reason, not emotion.
(Both passages from Singer, P. 2001 – Writings on an Ethical Life)
Check Your Progress 2
1 What is the main idea of the two passages?
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2 Does the author appeal to people’s emotions?
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These two paragraphs are excellent examples of how arguments are made. Let us look at both
the basic issues and the motivating factors which the writer has marshalled to put across his
point of view.
Issue: Rights of non-human species living on planet earth.
Position: Non-human animals have equal rights as humans.
Arguments: Gives examples of treatment of white humans on black humans (para 1)
Nazi camp doctors’ experiments on Jews (para 2)
This is as cruel as the laboratory experiments on innocent animals.
Counter arguments:
Appeals to morality, ethics and speaking out against cruelty to animals.
Powerful species cannot exploit the vulnerable and powerless.
Motivating factors:
Values: Equality of all species.
Needs and Interests: An interest in leading an ethical life.
Priorities: Equality and the Rights of all life on this planet is the writer’s utmost priority.
1.3.1 Synthesizing as a Writing Strategy
Synthesizing involves presenting facts, ideas and information taken from various sources and
suggesting ways in which these sources have a relationship. For example, facts taken from a
particular article could be extended in another book; or you may find arguments in one
research paper which are contradicted in another source. In fact, as Alexrod and Cooper
(2012) very succinctly say “When you synthesize material from different sources, you
construct a conversation among your sources, a conversation in which you also participate.”
So synthesizing is an important step in the process of writing on any topic, especially if you
are using multiple resources. In order to create an effective synthesis, you must read the all
material you have collected, albeit superficially; and then focus on the source you have
chosen as most appropriate for your topic. If you are basing your assignment on multiple
source synthesis, you need to pick up relevant arguments/facts from these different
articles/books and perhaps a quotation or two as well to illustrate your points.
Check your progress 3
1. Select a passage which has an argumentative focus and follows the basic issues and
motivating factors which are outlined.
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2. Write an essay on any topic of your choice which follows an argumentative
framework.
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1.4 INTERPRETIVE THINKING SKILLS
Writers often tell you more than they say directly. They imply emotions and attitudes, and
suggest points of view. They give you hints or clues that help you “read between the lines”.
When you infer, you go beyond the surface details to see other meanings that are not directly
stated. For instance, an author may not state directly that a particular character is bad, but the
words used to describe that person and the situation may convey the writer’s attitude towards
the character.
Read the following passage and jot down all the facts the author gives you about baths in the
Roman society.
Passage
For the ancient Romans, taking a bath was a very special occasion. Because they considered
bathing a social opportunity, they constructed huge public baths that put our modern-day
indoor pools and spas to shame. Not only were the baths themselves lavishly decorated, they
were also surrounded by shops, libraries, and lounges so that a person could shop, read or
chat after bathing. The famed Baths of Caracalla, for example, offered Roman citizens
massages and saunas in addition to a gymnasium and gardens for after-bath walks in lovely
surroundings. Art lovers that they were, the Romans also frequently built art galleries into
their bathing facilities. There were also kitchens, where food was prepared to serve hungry
bathers.
Although initially men and women bathed separately, mixed baths became the fashion until
500 A.D., when the coming of Christianity brought the public baths to an end.
Now let us analyse the passage:
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What does this passage tell you about baths in Roman society? The text tells you that taking a
bath was a very special occasion, and was a social opportunity. What can we infer from the
text? Which of these is true?
i. The ancient Romans were the first to lead a life of pure luxury.
ii. If the Romans had spent more time governing and less time bathing, the Roman
Empire would still exist today.
iii. The ancient Romans made luxury and socializing a part of bathing.
The answer is (iii). We can infer that the Roman bath was full of luxuries and was a place
where people could socialize. There is nothing in the text that can suggest that the Romans
spent a large part of their time in baths, nor that they were the first to lead a life of pure
luxury. When we summarize from the above text, we need to state the inference in clear
terms. In drawing such conclusions (making inferences), we are really getting at the main
idea of the text – what the author actually wishes to convey through the details and facts.
Merely getting the fact right is not enough – we must think about what these facts mean in the
context of the passage.
Check your progress 4
Here are two passages. Note down the main facts and details that have been provided and
state the inference you would make from these facts/details.
Passage 1
In one study, 93 percent of people who suffered from chronic muscle or bone pain – lacked
vitamin D. Another study done by Harvard University showed that vitamin D, which we get
mainly from sunlight, fatty fish, orange juice, and breakfast cereals prevents bone fractures
better than calcium does. Vitamin D also reduces the risk of getting arthritis by one-third.
Getting the proper amount of vitamin D lowers blood pressure and seems to slow the growth
of cancer cells. Furthermore, adequate Vitamin D reduces the risk of getting multiple
sclerosis by 50 percent and schizophrenia by 90 percent.
Passage 2
Not surprisingly, the crime victims are often called upon to identify the person who robbed or
attacked them. For a jury, the victim’s testimony is often proof positive that the accused is
guilty. After all, who can better identify the wrongdoer than the person harmed? This is just
common sense. Yet as is so often the case, that common sense can be misleading. As it turns
out, crime victims don’t necessarily make reliable witnesses. Overcome with fear, they close
their eyes or focus fixedly on the weapon being used to threaten them. As a result, they don’t
get a good look at the thief or attacker. While it’s not true that crime victim’s testimony is not
always inaccurate, it’s also true that one can’t assume a victim’s identification is automatic
proof of guilt.
1.5 LET US SUM UP
In this Unit we introduced you to some strategies which will help you become a more
reflective reader and writer. Remember, the skills of reading and writing are inextricably
interrelated. A thoughtful reader / writer is not only able to comprehend, but research
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meaningfully by asking the right questions. S/he is also able to analyse skillfully and interpret
the texts by reading ‘between the lines’, and to recognize ideas and information not directly
stated. Writers have the creative license of not stating ‘directly’ but implying information. In
this Unit, you looked at some of the topics which will enable you become a better reader and
writer.
1.6 SUGGESTED READINGS
Axelrod, Rise B. and Cooper R. Charles, (2012) Concise Guide to Writing. New York,
Bedford/St Martin’s.
Wyrick, Jean (2005) Steps to Writing Well – with Additional Readings. Boston: Thomson
Wadsworth
1.7 ANSWERS
Check your progress 1
Write the answer in your own words.
Check Your Progress 2
1 The main ideas of the two passages:
Cruelty to animals is as “wrong” as cruelty to humans.
Experiments on humans are as cruel as experiments on another species.
2
No, he appeals to peoples’ reason.
He appeals to moral principles of ‘equality’ where all species on the planet are equal
and deserve equal respect and kindness.
The powerful species, ie. humans should not exploit others.
Check your progress 3
Write the answer in your own words.
Check your progress 4
Passage 1
People who suffered from chronic muscle or bone pain – lacked vitamin D – study at Harvard
University showed – vitamin D – from sunlight, fatty fish, orange juice, and breakfast cereals
– prevents bone fractures – reduces risk of arthritis.
– proper amount of vitamin D lowers blood pressure – slows down growth of cancer cells –
reduces risk of multiple sclerosis and schizophrenia.
Inference: Vitamin D is essential for the prevention of many serious diseases.
Passage 2
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Crime
Victims called upon to identify the person who robbed or attacked them – for injury, victim’s
testimony – proof of the accused being guilty. However, crime victims are not necessarily
reliable witnesses – overcome with fear, close their eyes or look only at the weapon – as a
result, don’t get a good look at the attacker – victim testimony is not always inaccurate –
cannot be treated as automatic proof of guilt.
Inference: Victim’s testimony is not reliable and should not be taken as the automatic proof
of guilt.
UNIT 2 ENHANCING VOCABULARY
Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Active and Passive Vocabulary
2.3 Content Words and Function Words
2.4 Some Difficulties in Learning English Vocabulary
2.5 Word Building: Affixation and Compounding
2.6 Using a Dictionary and a Thesaurus
2.7 Let Us Sum Up
2.8 References and Suggested Readings
2.9 Answers
2.0 OBJECTIVES
After you have gone through this unit, you should be able to:
differentiate between active and passive vocabulary;
distinguish content and function words;
discuss with appropriate examples homonyms, homophones, homographs or idiomatic
expressions;
enumerate the use of suffixes and prefixes; and
understand the necessity of using the dictionary and thesaurus to expand vocabulary.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Like bricks when laid out properly, correctly and with some imagination can build up simple
walls or complex designs for buildings and mansions, not to talk of other structures, similarly
a language user uses different words to construct sentences – both single word sentences and
longer ones. But just as bricks alone are not adequate, and they need to be strengthened by
the use of mortar/concrete mixture, similarly words alone may not be adequate. The
appropriacy of the word chosen, the word order in which it is placed, the nuance of the
meaning – everything plays an important role. In this lesson, we will read how words – oral
or written – are gradually learnt and how you as a learner can gradually increase your word
base.
2.2 ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOCABULARY
Just think for a moment. Can you use all the words the moment you have heard them or have
read them once? Do you use all the unfamiliar words – the meanings of which you have
guessed while reading or listening – in your speech or writing? Some words you may, some
you might not. But you start understanding those words if you hear or read them again and
again. Our listening and reading vocabulary is much more than our speaking or writing
vocabulary.
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The words that you can use appropriately when you say or write something form what is
known as your active vocabulary and those that you have an idea of or can guess the meaning
of, but cannot use confidently form a part of your passive vocabulary. Our active vocabulary
is more limited (smaller) than our passive vocabulary. As students we try our best to increase
the repertoire of both active and passive vocabulary and gradually try to convert our passive
into our active vocabulary.
Check your progress 1
1 Given below are a few words. Under which category ‘Active’ or ‘Passive’ would you
put them in?
antiseptic anomaly forte herbarium paroxysm
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i Consult a dictionary to find out the meaning and pronunciation of the words (given
above) if you do not know them.
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ii Compare your list with someone in your family or one of your friends. Does the list
differ?
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2 Look at the following words:
Rapport Abdicate
Recede Maverick
Would memorizing the meaning and pronunciation of these words help you in using
them immediately in your speech? Give at least one reason for your answer.
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2.3 CONTENT WORDS AND FUNCTION WORDS
Read the following sentences:
1 I saw a beautiful bird sitting on a branch of a gulmohar tree.
2 Pari, my five-year-old granddaughter, wants to wear blue jeans all the time. She cries
loudly whenever her parents ask her to put on a frock, however beautiful.
Look at the underlined words carefully, once again. Even as isolated discrete words
they carry some meaning. These words, if you observe carefully, are nouns,
adjectives, verbs and adverbs. These words are called content words. On the other
hand, the words which are not underlined are function words. These words are more
frequently used and carry some grammatical meaning. These words which are also
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known as structure words, are modal and auxiliary verbs, determiners, prepositions
and conjunctions.
New learners learn content words first. The list of such words is open, in the sense
that new words are added to this list over the years, e.g. think of the word helipad or
smart phone. Did these words exist a hundred years ago? Why were these words
added to the list of words that are so commonly used today? Think and write your
answer here.
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On the other hand, function words are a much smaller set, although more frequently used and
the word list is a closed one, i.e. no new determiners or prepositions have been added to this
list.
Check your progress 2
1 Which of the following words would you consider of recent origin?
phishing hand blender milk shake
cute clone pod
flash mob blue tooth smart card smiley
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2 Look for the meanings of the words given in question 1. Use a dictionary to decide
the part of speech these words belong to.
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3 Find out how long these words have been in circulation.
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2.4 SOME DIFFICULTIES IN LEARNING ENGLISH VOCABULARY
As Second Language users we may find a few stumbling blocks in mastering this language.
In this section we shall look at a few of these difficulties.
One Word Many Meanings (Homonyms)
Homonyms are words which have the same spelling and pronunciation but different
meanings in different contexts. In the following sentences, the word club has different
meanings.
As a child, you might have gone to a local club in your locality. You might have seen the
picture of Bhim with a club in his hand in Mahabharat serial on television, and if you play
cards, you have to deal with clubs in the pack. Your teacher might suggest to you to club two
paragraphs together to make the writing more compact.
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A club is an association of people with common interest (first sentence)
A club is a heavy stick with a thick end, used as a hand weapon (Bhim with a club in
his hand).
Club is one of the four suits in a conventional pack of playing cards.
In the third sentence, club means combine.
Let us take another example.
1 She went to her room and lay down on the bed.
2 My husband is busy preparing a bed for the roses.
3 Heat the curry thoroughly and serve it on a bed of rice.
You will notice that the word bed has different meanings in the examples given above. You
understand the meaning from the context in which the word has been used, e.g. the context of
the first sentence is a piece of furniture, in the second sentence the context is the area in a
garden so that plants can be grown in it, whereas “a bed of rice” in a recipe would mean a
layer of rice.
These contexts give the clues about the meaning of the word bed or club. Read the examples
given above again and look at the words that give you the clues about the situation.
In English, there are many such words where the spelling (written form) and pronunciation
(sound) are the same but they have different meanings in different contexts.
Check your progress 3
1 There are many fans in the room.
Is this sentence ambiguous in meaning? Give a reason for your answer.
—————————————————————————————————
—————————————————————————————————
2 What are the different meanings of the word light? Use the word in sentences to bring
out the different meanings. Compare your answers with any dictionary.
—————————————————————————————————
—————————————————————————————————
Same Sound, Different Form and Meanings (Homophones)
Look at the following set of words.
A B
1 great grate
2 flour flower
3 break brake
4 there their
5 stationary stationery
6 bow bough
What is common in the different set of words?
Yes. You have got it right. The pronunciation (sound) of both the words are exactly the same
but the written form (spelling) are different. The meaning of the words is also different.
Which spelling to use is decided by the context in which the word is used. Such pair of words
– with identical sounds but different spelling and different meaning – are known as
homophones.
homo = same
phone = sound
Check your progress 4
1 You must have noticed the warning on many cars / taxies in India – Keep distance.
Power Break. What is wrong? Why?
—————————————————————————————————
—————————————————————————————————
2 Give examples of five sets of homophones.
—————————————————————————————————
Same Form Different Sound and Meaning (Homographs)
Now let us look at a different set of examples.
1a The Director’s Secretary took down the minutes.
1b Even minute details are taken care of by a diligent organizer.
2a Warriors, in earlier days, fought with bows and arrows.
2b We bow our head to the martyrs of our freedom movement.
What do you notice in the above examples? Write it in a sentence here.
———————————————————————————————————-
———————————————————————————————————-
Did you notice that the spelling in both the sets of sentences are the same? What about the
sound (pronunciation) and meaning? Consult a dictionary if you are not sure. Such pair of
words are termed homographs.
homo = same
graph = writing
In the above examples, did the context of the word help you in deciding the meaning? If yes,
then write down the pronunciation and meanings of the words minute in sentences 1a and 1b
and bow in sentences 2a and 2b.
Check your progress 5
1 ‘The words lead (v) and lead (n) are homographs as are the words live (v) and live
(adj.). Explain with suitable example.
—————————————————————————————————
—————————————————————————————————
2 Give examples of another set of homographs (other than the ones mentioned here).
Use them in your sentences to bring out the difference in meaning. Consult a
dictionary to check the pronunciation.
—————————————————————————————————
—————————————————————————————————
Idiomatic Expressions
Does lend an ear to someone mean the same as to lend someone money? What does from
hand to mouth mean? Who in your family is the apple of your eye? Or what is it to have a
green thumb?
As an experienced user of the language, you know the meaning of such ‘idiomatic
expressions’ and you are well aware that these frozen expressions mean something which is
totally different from the sum total of the individual words. The meaning cannot be derived
21
from individual words and must be learnt as a complete unit of meaning. And this
understanding is acquired slowly, gradually and with constant contact with the language.
Check your progress 6
1 Explain the meaning of the underlined idioms.
A I refuse to play second fiddle to my younger sister any more. I have had enough.
B I am sorry I cannot listen to you now. I am pressed for time.
C I’d better write the information in my notebook. I have a head like a sieve.
————————————————————————————————-
————————————————————————————————-
2 Substitute the underlined words with the appropriate idiom given in the box. You may
have to change the form of the idiom if required.
A You needn’t look at your watch again. I’ve understood what you want me to do and
I’ll go now.
————————————————————————————————-
B It is commonly said that every family has a secret or embarrassing fact which no
one likes to discuss.
————————————————————————————————-
C Don’t forget to write to us as soon as you arrive in Delhi.
————————————————————————————————-
3 Think of four idiomatic expressions in your mother tongue that uses different body
parts e.g. to have a finger in every pie. Find out if there are English equivalent to
those expressions in your mother tongue. Two examples in Hindi are given below:
Oongli pe nachaana
Sar aankon pe bithaana
————————————————————————————————-
————————————————————————————————-
————————————————————————————————-
Formal-Informal Expressions / Approved – Disapproved
Levels of formality and the connotations of some words also pose practical problems for
students of a second language. In learning a new language there is a tendency to use the more
formal language in normal conversational situations or vice versa i.e. use a slang or colloquial
expression inappropriately. Similarly, the positive or negative connotations of some words
a skeleton in the cupboard make short work of
drop a line get the message
22
might create difficulty for you. We all know how we applaud the firmness, determination or
resoluteness (words indicating approval) of people we like whereas we deplore the
stubbornness, obstinacy and pigheadedness (terms indicating disapproval) of those whom
we don’t like in exactly the same situations. Similarly, the same person can be fat or plump
to different persons. It takes a long time for most of us to catch such nuances of the language.
Check your progress 7
1 Write formal (f), informal (inf), approved or disapproved against the words given
below. Consult a dictionary, if necessary.
Laudatory ………………… Smart alec …………………
Sissy ………………… Felicitous …………………
Dirt cheap ………………… Dude …………………
Soporific ………………… Clobber …………………
Hyponyms (word categories)
Orange is a fruit and so is an apple, banana or a mango. The word fruit is a superordinate
while the name of other fruits given above are the hyponyms. Similarly, learners are familiar
with different items in the world around them. Given below are some examples of this
category of sense relationship.
Superordinate Hyponyms
Clothes Shirt, trousers, frock, kurta…
Trees Neem, banyan, gulmohar, acacia…
Different methods of cooking Boil, simmer, bake, roast, deep fry, stir fry,
sauté…
Colours Blue, Red, White, Crimson, aquamarine, sea
green, ochre…
Collocation (word partnerships)
Collocations are essentially word partnerships. A collocation is two or more words that often
go together. Native speakers intuitively know which words frequently combine and are
acceptable and which do not. Knowing the frequent collocations is essential for accurate
natural English.
We can use the word colour in the following combination:
(Source: Collins Co-build Advanced Illustrated Dictionary)
Some other collocations could be: ideal character, central figure, gained status, met her fate,
make your bed, do your homework, and so on.
Adjective Bright colour, favourite colour
Noun Colour blind, eye/hair colour,
Colour film/ photograph,
Colour television
Preposition In colour
(Source: Collins Co-build Advanced Illustrated Dictionary)
Some other collocations could be: ideal character, central figure, gained status, met her fate,
make your bed, do your homework, and so on.
Adjective Bright colour, favourite colour
Noun Colour blind, eye/hair colour,
Colour film/ photograph,
Colour television
Preposition In colour
23
Check your progress 8
1 Read the words given below in the rectangle. Put them in proper categories. One is
done for you as an example. In some you have to write the categories in the boxes.
2 We often use certain words in combination with others. An example is given for you.
Use a dictionary, if necessary.
Money make, …………..
Friend close, ……………
Hair (colour) …………………..
Hair (style) …………………..
Antonyms (Opposites)
The term antonym is used to refer to words which have an opposite meaning. But there are
pairs of words which contrast in terms of a scale, e.g. hot/cold; tall/short; easy/difficult. These
opposites are gradable. For example, if we put hot/cold (water) at two ends of a continuum,
we get something like this.
Scalding hot → boiling hot → warm →lukewarm → tepid → quite cold → freezing cold
But think of opposites, male/female. Such meanings are non-gradable or mutually
exclusive. A boy cannot be a girl or a dead person cannot be alive/living.
Synonyms (Similar Meaning)
Every language has groups of lexical items which are very similar in meaning (Synonym) but
are never identical. For example: angry, annoyed, upset and irritated may be synonyms but
each word differs slightly from the others. You have to pay attention to synonyms if you wish
to choose appropriate words in different types of writing.
Check your progress 9
1 Make a word continuum for the pair big/small.
Huge → very big →……………………………………………… → very small →
tiny
2 Can words like limp, hobble, stroll, saunter, march, stride, trudge and trek be used
as synonyms of walk? Consult a dictionary and give reasons for your answer.
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
3 How many synonyms are there for the word glamour? Write them here.
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
2.5 WORD BUILDING: AFFIXATION AND COMPOUNDING
Affixation
We can build new words in English by adding prefixes and suffixes to the base word. For
example, to the word mortal we can use the prefix im to make a new word immortal and we
can get the word immortalise by adding the suffix-ise. Similarly, the word agree can take the
prefix dis- to make a new word disagree and another word disagreement with the suffix –
ment.
Use of prefixes like im-, dis- or multi- when added to the root word gives it a different
meaning. For example:
un – uncommon, unable
in – inconvenient, injustice
dis – disadvantage, disagree
il – illegal, illegible
ir – irregular, irrelevant
im – impossible, impatient
multi – multilingual, multifaceted
fore – forenoon, forewarn
Here are some suffixes:
-age bag-baggage, post-postage
-dom kind-kingdom, star-stardom
-hood state-statehood, boy-boyhood
-ism hero-heroism, Hindu-Hinduism
Compounding
Compounds are made up of two or more parts which can also occur independently as words.
These separate words are combined to form other new words which are listed separately in
the dictionary and have separate meanings.
25
Blackboard
Flowerpot
Armchair
Check your progress 10
1. Choose the correct prefix from the prefixes given in brackets to express the kind of
meaning indicated for each of the words given below:
i Contented (mal-, dis-, un-) negative …………………………….
ii Represent (non-, mal-, mis-) ‘wrongly’ …………………………….
iii Inform (mal-, mis-, dis-) ‘incorrectly’ ……………………………
iv Active (ultra-, in-, hyper-) ‘extremely ……………………………
v Comfortable (un-, dis-, non-) negative ……………………………
2. Match the words in Column A with those in Column B to form compounds.
A B
brain pour
down felt
draw case
heart back
stair storm
pin
2.6 USING A DICTIONARY AND A THESAURUS
Dictionaries are of help in checking and learning of
pronunciation with the correct stress pattern, meaning
in contexts (with examples) or grammar of a word (e.g.
the part of speech it belongs to; whether transitive or
intransitive in case of a verb or whether countable or
uncountable in case of a noun). Some dictionaries like
the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2002
edition) (OALD) gives the origin of the word.
For example, Gordian Knot means a very difficult or impossible task or problem. Then the
origin of the word it mentioned:
ORIGIN: From the legend in which King Gordius tied a very complicated
knot and said that whoever untied it would become the ruler of Asia.
Alexander the Great cut through the knot with his sword.
Moreover, dictionaries like the Cambridge International Dictionary of English (1995 edition),
includes a picture dictionary (e.g. on kitchen, bicycles, etc.) as does Advanced Oxford or
Collins Co build.
The last dictionary mentioned here also includes Word Webs or topic related vocabulary
through encyclopedia – like readings combined with related art work, word partnerships
(collocations) and word links (word origin) e.g. (geo=earth; geography; geology,
geopolitical) or even usage like less and fewer. You also have used the dictionary to decide
whether a particular word is formal, informal, and shows approval and disapproval to
complete your task set in Check your progress 7. While the language of literary criticism of
OALD is very informative, the Text Messaging and Emoticons included in Collins Cobuild is
very handy in an age of e-mails and SMSs. In other words, a dictionary is not only a useful
reference material but also a treasure house of information to build up the vocabulary of your
learners.
In higher classes, you will find both the thesaurus and the dictionary extremely beneficial in
reading and writing tasks.
Check your progress 11
1 Substitute the word nice in the following paragraph. Change sentence construction, if
necessary.
It was a nice morning. We went out for a nice picnic to a nice park near our house.
The food was nice and we played nice games. We enjoyed the nice outing.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
2.7 LET US SUM UP
Isolated words are difficult to remember. When we learn words and phrases, our memory
tries to group words that go together so that one word of phrase reminds us another. We have
discussed some of these in different sections of this unit e.g.
Related to the same topic (Associated words e.g. the picture of a kitchen)
Examples of a more general word (superordinate – Hyponyms, e.g. Furniture – table,
chair etc.)
Similar in meaning (synonyms e.g. lazy – indolent)
Opposite in meaning (antonyms lazy – active)
Arranged along a scale, word continuum e.g.
letter – word – phrase – sentence – paragraph – page – chapter – book
Built from the same basic word (Affixation, Compound words e.g. Type – retype
(prefix) , child – children (suffix), type + write (compound words)
A word is rarely learnt at one go. Hence, the need to review, revise and recycle words at
frequent intervals so that the learning is spiral and a new aspect is added gradually over the
years.
Moreover, vocabulary learning does not end in school. It continues well into our adult life.
It is a life-long process. Also, our passive vocabulary is much larger than our active
vocabulary.
2.8 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS
Redman, S. and Ellis, R. 1995. A Way with Words. Books 1 and 4. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
MC Carthy, M. and O’Deu, F. 1996. English Vocabulary in Use. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Morgan, J. and Rinvolucri, M. 1986. Vocabulary. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
UKOU. (1980). Words and Their Meanings. Milton Keynes: UKOU
2.9 ANSWERS
Check your progress 1
1. Open ended and therefore answers will vary.
2. We do not learn those words which we don’t use. Also, to use a word one must know
the meaning, the pronunciation, the context in which the word can be used, the other
words that need to be used with that particular word and also the grammar of the
word.
Check your progress 2
1. Phishing, iPod, Blue tooth, Smart Card, Smiley
2. a) Phishing (noun) – The practice of trying to trick people into giving secret financial
information. (computing)
b) Hand blender, Milkshake, Clone (n/v),
c) iPod, Flash mob, Bluetooth, smart card, smiley (noun)
d) cute (adjective)
3. Answer in your own words.
Check your progress 3
1. The context is not clear. Which fan are we talking about? – The ceiling, table or
pedestal fans in a room or the ardent admirers (as in the fans of Aamir Khan)
2. There was no light in the room.
I prefer light colour paint on walls.
I am very light sleeper.
Let have some light refreshment.
28
Check your progress 4
1 The correct word should have been brake. The person who has got it written does not
know the difference of meaning between break and brake.
2 blue – blew; see – sea; sale – sail; son – sun; piece – peace.
Check your progress 5
1 a) Good leaders lead (v) from the front.
Use a lead (n) pencil to draw and sketch.
b) We live (v) in the capital city of India.
Be careful of live (adjective) wires. / A live (adjective) telecast of the final
tennis match.
2 Write in your own words.
Check your progress 6
1 a) If you play second fiddle to someone, your position is less important although
you work together; if you have had enough, you are unhappy with a situation
and want it to stop.
b) have no time.
c) If you have a head like a sieve you do tend to forget important things.
2 a) got the message.
b) a skeleton in the cupboard.
c) drop a line.
3 Write in your own words.
Check your progress 7
Laudatory – formal
Smart alec – informal, disapproval
Dirt cheap – informal
Dude – informal
Sissy – informal, disapproval
Felicitous- formal
Soporific- formal
Clobber- informal
Check your progress 8
1
Super ordinate Hyponyms
1 Dwellings (human) Villa, wigwam, apartment, mansion, bungalow, igloo,
tent
2 Countries Canada, Iceland, Norway, Scotland, Denmark
3 Furniture Sofa, coffee table, chaise longue, chair
4 Animals (Extinct) Mammoth, dinosaurs, duckbilled platypus
2 Make: mess; comment; money; suggestion
Close: contest/election; contact; friend; family; connection; attention
Hair (colour): golden; red; black; white; grey; auburn; salt and pepper; blonde
Hair (style): long; short; frizzy; permed; straight; shoulder/waist/knee length; curly
Check your progress 9
1 Huge – very big – big – quite big – medium sized – quite small – small – tiny
2 Do it yourself.
3 Do it yourself.
Check your progress 10
i. Contented (mal-, dis-, un-) negative discontented
ii. Represent (non-, mal-, mis-) ‘wrongly’ misrepresent
iii. Inform (mal-, mis-, dis-) ‘incorrectly’ misinform
iv. Active (ultra-, in-, hyper-) ‘extremely hyperactive
v. Comfortable (un-, dis-, non-) negative uncomfortable
2 Brainstorm
Downpour
Drawback
Heartfelt
Staircase
Check your progress 11
Write the answer in your own words.
1
30
UNIT 3 IMPROVING GRAMMAR AND PUNCTUATION SKILLS
Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Understanding Forms and Functions in English Language
3.3 The Use of Tenses in English
3.4 Probable Hard spots for ESL Learners
3.4.1 The Conditionals
3.4.2 Passive Constructions
3.5 Punctuation
3.6 Let Us Sum Up
3.7 Suggested Readings
3.8 Answers
3.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this Unit and completing the activities you would be able to:
Explain the significance of grammar in meaning-making when learning a language;
Distinguish between forms and functions of similar or dissimilar sentences (with
suitable examples) and establish the relationship (or the lack there of) between these
two aspects;
Revisit and review a few selected aspects of English grammar i.e. tenses, conditional
clauses and passive constructions
Understand some difficult aspects of punctuation
3.1 INTRODUCTION
“Grammar is the structural foundation of our ability to express ourselves. The more we are
aware of how it works, the more we can monitor the meaning and effectiveness of the way
we and others use language.” (David Crystal, 2004, In Word and Deed, TES). As Julio
Foppoli argues (www.esaudio.net/spanish/onlineclasses.html.) that as a train cannot move
without railways, you won’t be able to convey your ideas to their full extension without a
good command of underlying grammar patterns and structures of the language.
As students we are often faced with a very peculiar and contradictory situation. While we
often perform very well in grammar tests, we are unable to use these items to speak fluently
or write accurately. Why does that happen?
3.2 UNDERSTANDING FORMS AND FUNCTIONS IN ENGLISH
LANGUAGE
In other units of the block, you must have come across two oft – repeated terms:
Form of language
31
Function of language
Before we proceed to discuss the relationship between form and function in the English
language, let us quickly review the two concepts.
The forms of language include the types of sentences (structures/patterns) used i.e.
declarative, interrogative, imperative and exclamatory. These structures that make up the
grammar of the language include such things as the present simple. (e.g. She reads) or the
past continuous (e.g. He was driving) or adjectives of comparison (Pari is taller than Ruby)
or number of nouns (I found a little child crying on the road and a few older children talking
to her).
On the other hand, language functions refer to its purposes; its use and what it does when we
use language to communicate. These are:
Informative Language Function: Communicating information such as facts, comparison and
contrast, cause and effect relationship, summarising, sequencing, questioning, answering
techniques, etc.
Expressive Language Functions: Reporting feelings or attitudes or evoking these feelings in
the reader or listener (e.g. persuasion, agreeing / disagreeing, apologizing, expressing
enthusiasm/disappointment, dealing with anger, sadness, indifference, etc.)
Directive Language Functions: Using language to cause or prevent actions, such as
commands or requests (e.g. inviting some of your friends to dinner, giving directions to reach
the restaurant, how to make soft rotis,) etc.
We must comprehend and appreciate the fact that there is no one to one match between
grammatical form and communicative functions. For example, The room is quite warm
(declarative sentence in simple present tense) might be used in different contexts as
informative (an observation); expressive (how one feels at the moment) or directive (to
switch on the air-conditioner). Hence, you must realize that a context often determines the
purpose of an utterance. Similarly, if we wish to invite someone we use the language of
inviting. For example, we might say:
Are you free this Saturday? Would you like to come to the picnic we are planning to have?
We will be very happy if you come to the picnic with us this Saturday.
How about coming to the picnic on Saturday?
Hence for every function there is a number of different ways to express it.
Check your progress 1
Match each of the questions 1-6 from the list (A) with a function from the list (B).
A
Question:
i. What is your plan for the evening?
ii. Is that a suspension bridge or a cantilever bridge?
iii. What sort of ring was Rini wearing?
32
iv. Would you mind holding this packet for a minute?
v. What do you think of the English teacher?
vi. Why does she always ask such stupid questions?
B
Function:
a. Asking someone to distinguish between alternatives.
b. Asking for information.
c. Asking for help.
d. Asking for a description.
e. Asking for opinion.
f. Expressing surprise.
g. Asking for details.
h. Expressing irritation.
(The purpose of this item is to make you observe and understand that although each and
every item in the first part has the same form, i.e. the interrogative; the questions posed have
different functions.)
2 What is common in the following sentences – form or function?
Do that and you’ll be in trouble.
You’d better not do that.
If you do that, you’ll be in trouble.
I wouldn’t do that, if I were you.
Mind you don’t do that.
Besides the informative, expressive and directive language functions mentioned in this
Section, we have the ceremonial language use, performative utterances and phatic
expressions. Let us look at these functions.
Performative utterances: Language which performs the action it reports, e.g. “I do” in
marriage ceremony, or words like promise, apologize or congratulate. The words denote an
action which is performed.
Ceremonial (or ritual language use): e.g. Dearly beloved, we are gathered here together to
unite the young couple into holy matrimony…(different from simply mixing expressive and
directive language because performative aspects are also included).
Phatic language – Conversations accomplishing a social task or even a nod or a wave of hand
to greet somebody.
3.3 THE USE OF TENSES IN ENGLISH
Now let us look at some aspects of Grammar which sometimes cause problems for us.
The concept of time, tense and aspect of a verb is an important area which demands our
attention. But before we proceed further, comment on the following statements.
The verb form is the main marker of time in an English sentence.
33
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Present tense is always used to express present time in English.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
There is no future tense in English.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Now read on and compare what we think about these statements.
1. The verb phrase is usually the time marker in most cases but is reinforced in the form
of a time adverbial. The term tense is traditionally used to refer to the way the verb
changes its endings to express a time meaning. For example –
– My husband loves gardening. Come winter and he is busy with his petunias,
lobelias, dahlias, chrysanthemums and what not. He is now watering the plants.
– Indian Super League defending champions Atletico de Kolkata is all set to train
for a month in Spain.
– I had viral fever last week. I still feel very weak.
2. Usually the present tense indicates present time e.g.
– I’m awfully busy right now. Don’t disturb me.
I have a severe headache.
But the simple present tense can also indicate future time e.g.
– I fly to Trivandrum next week. (fixed plan)
– Pari, my granddaughter, wants to be a Tennis Champion. It is her dream to play in
the courts of Wimbledon. Pronoy, my grandson, on the other hand, dreams of
being an airplane pilot. Childhood ambitions!!(indefinite future plans)
3. There is no separate tense marker in English to indicate future tense. (e.g. -s at the end
of verb with the third person singular subject indicating simple tense, for example,
The President leaves for London tomorrow.
Therefore, English has two tenses. Traditional grammarians call these tenses present and past.
More modern names for these are Actual and Remote. However, there are five ways of
expressing future time, for example:
– Taru will be admitted to the hospital tomorrow. (will / shall)
– She is going to have a baby. (going to)
– My daughter is coming next week to spend a day with us. (Simple present
continuous)
– Ask her to call me when she leaves the house. (Simple present)
– I’m about to complain to the Resident Welfare Association President about our
neighbour’s noisy late-night parties. (about to)
We would like to draw your attention, very briefly, to the point that it is possible to use the
same form (i.e. present or past tense) to talk of different points of time. In the words of David
Crystal we can say that, ` …there is no identity between tense and time. Present and past
tenses can be used to refer to all parts of a time line,’ i. e. past time, present time (includes
now) and future time. This you can easily understand if you read the following sentences
carefully. All these sentences express habitual or routine actions. What are the different ways
in which the function is realized?
– Mr. Misra is a chain-smoker. (Verb in simple present tense)
– Pushpa is a very efficient assistant. (use of adjective and noun, verb in simple
present tense.)
– Ashish used to drink. (used to drink in the past, has now discontinued the practice)
– Pratyush cannot sleep at night without reading a few pages from a novel. (Use of
modal auxiliary verb can with the negative not and simple present tense to
indicate habitual activity / inability to do without something.)
– Avantika is always spilling food on the floor. (Present continuous tense to show
repeated action.)
As the tense of the verb form indicates the time (at which an action takes place), the aspect of
the verb refers to how the time of action is regarded – i.e. whether it is complete, in progress
or showing duration. You have already learnt in school that the present continuous
(progressive) aspect is used to express an event in progress at a given time. The present
continuous tense is formed by combining the verb ‘be’ (is, am, are) with the -ing ending to
indicate an event in present time. The usual implication is that the activity is taking place
over a limited period and the situation is temporary. For example:
– Shilpi is working from home today.
– Don’t make noise. The baby is sleeping.
– The children are playing in the park.
On the other hand, if we want to talk of an action that started in the past and is seen in
relation to a later event or time, we usually use the present perfect tense, e. g.
– He has been in prison for fifteen years. (He is probably still there.)
– I have lived in Delhi for five years. (I still do.)
The perfective aspect is formed by using the verb ‘have’. For example:
– The train has arrived. It is on platform number four.
– Suhas and Aditi have finished washing the dishes.
– I have worked for three hours at a stretch.
– She has been ill for quite some time.
Students of English as a Second Language find it difficult to decide when to use the Present
Perfect aspect and when to use the Past tense. Remember whenever you are reviewing the
verb forms in the present and past tense, the Past tense means ‘past-happening-related-to past
time’; i. e. the happening is related to a definite time in the past, e.g.
– We went to Srinagar in 2011.
– My father was 86 when he passed away last year.
The definite time in the past is usually identified by a past time adverbial in the same
sentence or the preceding language context.
In contrast, the perfect aspect is used for a past happening which is seen in relation to a later
event or time. Thus, the present perfect means ‘past- happening-related-to-present-time’, e.g.
– We have eaten all the curd-rice for lunch. (There isn’t any left.)
– Have you completed the project proposal? (You are expected to submit it now.)
Different kinds of adverbials are associated with the past tense and the present perfective, e.g.
– I saw Tara a week ago.
– I have not seen Shefali since December.
Using the wrong adverbial is a common error made by English learners.
Your teachers must have made you conscious of the fact that the verb is the central element
of a sentence. We would like to remind you here that you have to learn all about tense and
aspect of verbs because a good knowledge of verbs is important to infer and comprehend the
signification of the relationship of the different sentences that are chosen for assessing your
comprehension skills. You would also need verbs to express your ideas in any kind of writing
tasks – be it descriptive, expository, discursive or narrative or even a simple task like letter
writing or answering questions based on reading texts. For transformation exercises which
are set in your examination question papers you would need a thorough knowledge of the
correct form of the verb.
The two other sub-topics that we have selected to discuss in this unit – conditional clauses
and passive constructions–are also verb related. But we will discuss more of it later.
Check your progress 2
1 Consult any grammar book to list the different functions that a verb in the simple
present tense performs. Now identify the functions of the verb forms in the
sentences given below.
i. Water boils at 100 degree centigrade. …………………………….
ii. She plays the piano really well. ……………………………………
iii. The easiest way to go to Delhi Haat is to take the Metro from Model
Town………………..
iv. Separate the egg whites and the yolks and keep them in two separate bowls. Beat the
whites stiff till they stand in peaks……………………………..
v. Anup wins the toss and decides to bat first………………………….
vi. Rani plans to join her new job in September. She wants to rest for two weeks before
taking up the new assignment………………………………………
2 The following sentences are in the present continuous tense. But how does the
meaning differ in each sentence?
i. Air pollution is becoming worse day by day.
ii. The government is planning to allow even and odd number cars on alternate days on
the road.
iii. I’m going to attend a mono-acting programme on Kabir by Shekhar Sen.
iv. It is snowing in Shimla.
v. I’m forever looking for my room keys.
3 What is the difference in the set of sentences given below?
i(a) The sun rises in the east.
(b) The sun is rising over the horizon. What a beautiful sight.
ii(a) In summer, it always rains in the evening in this place.
(b) It is not raining but is pouring now. How can you think of going out?
iii (a) Joy reads a lot of books.
(b) He is reading the Glass Palace by Amitav Ghosh now.
iv (a) There was an explosion at the crowded Sarojini Nagar Market before Diwali.
37
(b) There has been an explosion at Sarojini Nagar market. Many people have lost
their lives.
v (a) The Mughal Gardens at Rashtrapati Bhavan have been opened for public.
Have you ever been there?
(b) We went to the Mughal Gardens at Rashtrapati Bhavan last week. It is opened
for public viewing only for a fortnight.
3.4 PROBABLE HARD SPOTS FOR ESL LEARNERS
Students of English, who are no longer beginners but are not yet fully proficient – face
problems in different grammar areas. Contemporary grammarians and authors like Penny Ur
and John Eastwood have identified a few topics viz. the conditional clauses, the use of
passive constructions, phrasal verbs, the meaning of different verb forms, prepositions and so
on as probable hard-spots for ESL learners.
In this section we would briefly touch upon (the major pitfalls in understanding and using)
Conditional Clauses and Passive Constructions.
3.4.1 The Conditionals
“Conditional clauses (in complex sentences) are related to (adverbial) reason clauses; they
discuss the consequence of something which may or may not be a real event.” Usually, the
second language learners are taught three types of conditionals (although it is the third
conditional that the students find difficult to grasp and use effectively.)
The first conditional is an open condition i.e. what is said in the condition is possible and
refers to either present or future time. For example:
– If we hurry, we will get the tickets for the morning show.
Syntactical Structure
Conditional Clause; Main Clause
If + present tense; will + infinitive + consequence
– If I hear any news, I’ll ring you.
– If he does not come on time, we’ll go without him.
– If my father gets to know about this, he will be very upset.
– If I save enough money, I’ll go on a Mediterranean Cruise.
The second conditional is an unreal or improbable situation also known as a hypothetical
condition. The tense of the verb in the conditional clause is in the simple past tense and the
verb in the main clause is would or should.
– If I had more time, I would visit my friends more often.
38
– If I walked for at least twenty minutes every day, my blood sugar would be more
controlled.
– If Shalini didn’t know what to do, she should have asked you.
Although the main clause often has would, we can also use could or might.
– If I had a camera, I could take a few photographs.
– If you had a calculator, we could finish the calculations faster.
In second conditional clauses, we sometimes use were instead of was, especially in the clause
– if I were you. Examples:
– If I were you, I would ask a doctor for some advice.
– If I were you, I would settle the dispute as early as possible.
Please note: Although we are using the past tense, the time that we are talking about is the
present = NOW; e.g. If I knew the name of the author, I would tell you.
Syntactical Structure
Conditional Clause Main Clause
If +Past Tense could/would + infinitive
– If I had money, I would buy a house in Kasauli.
– If you needed an invitation to the Opening Ceremony, I could get you one.
Third Conditional: In these types of sentences we are talking of hypothetical or unreal
conditions, and imagining the result of the situation. (Unreal /hypothetical conditions are
those where something had not happened in the past and therefore the result is being
imagined.)
– If you had studied harder throughout the term, you would have done much better in the
examinations. (But you didn’t work hard and therefore you didnot do well.)
– If you had told me that you were interested in seeing the play The War Horse, I would have
booked your ticket along with ours. (But you didn’t tell me earlier, and so I didn’t buy a
ticket for you.)
Syntactical Structure
Conditional Clause Main Clause
If + past perfect, … would/could/might + have + past participle
The Third Conditional Clause, talks about the past. It is used to describe a situation that did
not happen in the past, and so the result of this situation is unreal (imaginary).
– If I hadn’t eaten so much, I wouldn’t have felt sick (but I did eat a lot, and so I did feel sick)
– If you had taken a taxi, you wouldn’t have missed the train.
– Mummy wouldn’t have been so tired, if she had gone to bed earlier.
– Ronnie would have been on time for the interview, if he had left the house at quarter past
eight.
Remember –We DO NOT normally use will or would in the conditional clause, but only in
the main clause. But there are exceptions. We can use will in the if clause, when we make a
request.
– If you’ll just hold on for a minute, I’ll ask mother to take your call.
(If you want to learn more about tenses in conditional clauses you can refer to Collins Co
build English Grammar or a Communicative Grammar of English by Leech and Svartvik.)
Check your progress 3
1 Complete the sentences given below.
i If my daughter comes tomorrow,…………………..
ii We will all be very happy if……………………..
iii If I have enough money, …………………….
iv I could take your photo if…………………
v ……………………, I would buy a house in Kodaikanal.
vi If you had a dictionary,……………………
vii Sheila would build up a well-stocked children’s library, if only the School
Principal……………..
viii If I were you, ……………………
ix I wouldn’t have caught a cold, if ………………..
x We wouldn’t have missed the train if ……………….
xi If we had taken the earlier train,………………….
xii If we had taken leave for a few more days, we……………….
2 What does the speaker mean?
i Riya could have worn her new dress, if only the tailor had altered it on time.
………………………………………………………………………….
ii If you had told me before, I wouldn’t have shared our Sunday plans with Prateek.
………………………………………………………………………….
iii Fever for over a week should not be neglected. If I were you, I would have gone to the
doctor by now.
40
………………………………………………………………………..
iv If Tina had asked me, I would have suggested wearing something warmer.
………………………………………………………………………….
v If only Ramkumar was not so short-tempered, his colleagues would have liked him
better.
………………………………………………………………………….
3.4.2 Passive Constructions
Understanding the meanings, uses and functions of the passive voice is another difficult area
for ESL learners and this has been reported by many ESL/EFL teachers. As passive
constructions are fairly frequent in academic and scientific writings, learners are often
required to use passive forms in documenting experiments or reports of significant events of
their institutions.
We often choose to use passive structures when we want to talk about an action, but are not
interested in saying who or what does it. For example: English is spoken by everyone here.
Another point that you need to remember is: When the verb in a sentence is intransitive
(when the verb does not take an object) it cannot be changed into passive voice.
For example:
Shoubik and Mandira have a nice house.
(and not) A nice house is had by Shoubik and Mandira.
Similarly,
– My dresses don’t fit me any more (cannot be changed to I’m not fitted by my dresses.)
– My sister lacks tac t(and not Tact is lacked by my sister).
– They walked into the room (and not The room was walked into.)
In this section we will briefly touch upon the situations in which passive constructions are
more appropriate. But before we go into these details, let us revise how passives are formed –
although we know that you are familiar with it.
Passive forms consist of an appropriate tense of the verb be followed by a past participle of
the verb.
For example:
– His friend was shot in the chest and he died on the spot.
(In this sentence the subject is –His friend and the passive construction is formed by using be
(was) + shot (past participle). What according to you is the difference between the sentences:
41
a) His friend was shot in the chest and he died on the spot. (passive)
b) The robbers shot his friend in the chest and he died on the spot. (active)
In the second sentence, we obviously want to draw your attention to the robbers, “the doer/or
the agent of the action instead of-‘his friend’—the person affected by the shooting. Thus,
there is a shift of emphasis. This transformation from active sentence (b) to passive sentence
(a) is possible because the verb shot is used as transitive verb and has a distinct object.
However, there are a number of exceptions. Active verb forms cannot be passivised when
a) The object is a reflexive, reciprocal or possessive pronoun. For example:
– She hurt herself in the darkness. (Reflexive)
– During the floods in Chennai, the neighbours helped each other. (Reciprocal)
b) Verbs in the active sentence like resemble or lack. For example:
– I lack patience.
– My brother resembles my mother.
You already know that we prefer to choose a passive construction when it is preferable not to
mention the performer or when we do not know who the performer is. For example:
– Our house was burgled when we had gone abroad for a holiday.
In situations of social and historical significance the passive form is used.
– The Agra Fort which was earlier a brick fort was held by the Chauhan Rajputs. Later it was
rebuilt in red sandstone during the reign of Akbar. The Fatehpur Sikri was also
constructed during this period in honour of the great Sufi Saint Salim Chishti.
Passives are used to: to describe a process:
– To make methi parathas, wheat flour is mixed with besan and sieved. Finely chopped
methi leaves are mixed into the flour mixture and kneaded.
For classifying:
– Based on the components and size of the participles, soil is classified into different types,
namely sandy, clay, silt, loamy, peat, and chalky soil.
For making proposals:
– The abacus project, which was proposed for children between the ages of four to fourteen,
would be used not only to promote better numeracy skills but also to stimulate visual
memory for faster mental operations.
For warning:
Driving should be avoided after too many (alcoholic) drinks at a party.
– For defining:
– A delta, or an area of low flat fertile land, is shaped like a triangle. Deltas are formed
where the river splits into several branches before entering the sea. They are formed in the
regions of low tides and coastal plains.
For offering suggestions:
– Don’t you think that contractual staff who have been in this office for more than ten years
should be regularized?
Check your progress 4
1 Explain the contexts of the following sentences (the first one is done for you.) Why is
the agent not mentioned?
i The litmus paper is placed in the liquid.
Example: (Scientific experiment) The Person is a scientist / teacher/ student /
researcher. Therefore, the doer of the action is taken for granted.
ii The chicken breasts are cleaned, washed and then cut into half inch broad
strips………………………
iii The order to Public Works Department (PWD) to carry out patchwork on Delhi roads
was revoked…………………….
iv A cricketer, who was charged for match fixing, was banned for five years.
……………………..
v Common sleep disorders that rob many people from a good night’s sleep can be
classified in four categories. ……………….
2 Rewrite the following headlines using a passive construction. Provide an agent if you
think it would add to the meaning.
i 1000 strong Police Personnel deployed amid security fears.
ii Despite outcry, Japan to resume whaling.
iii Teen abducted, hidden at school.
iv Projects planned to decongest city traffic points.
v New method for ice-free preservation of tissues discovered.
3 Use the information boxes to write a paragraph on how biscuits are made. Use the
passive voice and appropriate sequencers. (First, after that, finally, next, then)
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
All clues given. Write the procedure using the passive voice and linkers indicating sequence.
(Open ended – but do not change order of the boxes given).
3.5 PUNCTUATION
While we have extensively discussed Grammar, we intend to be briefer where punctuation is
concerned. Our emphasis will be on problem areas which you as students face in your
writing. Have you ever asked yourself the question “Why do we need punctuation?”
Well, punctuation is required to clarify your written thoughts and ideas, so that your readers
can understand you easily. Just as your pauses, tone of voice, rhythm help your listeners to
comprehend your speech and attitude, punctuation does much the same for the written word.
Let us look at some sentences which may cause confusion because of punctuation.
Confusing: Has the tiger in the first cage been fed Mithu?
Clear: Has the tiger in the first cage been fed, Mithu?
Confusing: The teacher called the children names.
Clear: The teacher called the children’s names.
You all know when to use a period or full stop, so we will not go into details of this here.
Let us turn to the question mark (?). You know that you use a question mark after every
direct question. Example:
– May I borrow an umbrella?
– Are you going out in the rain?
But you do not use a question mark after an indirect question. Such as
-Pushpa asked me why I was late.
– Devender wondered why his students always forgot their note books at home.
The exclamation mark (!): The exclamation follows words, phrases or sentences which
show strong emotions.
– Fire! Fire! Ring up the fire station.
– What a beautiful sight!
The Comma: This can be a tricky area, so we shall make you aware of certain rules you
must follow:
Use a comma to separate two independent or main clauses joined by a coordinating
conjunction such as “and”, “nor”, “but”, “yet”, “so”, etc. Example:
– He is rich, but he is dishonest.
44
– Hurry up, or you will miss the train.
Conjunctive adverbs, such as “however”, “moreover”, “this”, “consequently”, “therefore”
are frequently followed by commas when they appear in the middle of a sentence. Example:
– Rani felt, consequently, that Ravi was not a responsible husband.
comma is used after an introductory phrase or clause. Example:
– After we had finished dinner, we discovered that we had forgotten to take out the special
salad from the fridge.
We use a comma to separate a non-defining relative (adjective) clause from the main clause.
In a non-defining relative or adjective clause, the information can be omitted without
changing the meaning of the main clause.
-My husband, who is a surgeon, is going to USA for a specialized degree.
Use a comma to set off “yes”, “no”, “well”. Example:
– Yes, I am in the hotel industry.
The semicolon (;):Use a semicolon to link too closely related independent clauses. Example:
– Sanjeev Kapur has been cooking Multani style cuisine for several years without realizing it;
all the spices he uses have a Multani flavour.
The Colon (:)You already know that a colon is used to introduce a long list.
– Oil is of three kinds: mineral, vegetable and animal.
A colon may be used to introduce a quotation or definition, example:
– This is one of the definitions of a bore: “A person who talks when you wish him to listen.”
Quotation Marks “…..”You already know when you use quotation marks. You use
quotation marks to enclose someone’s spoken or written words. Example:
– He said, “What a pity you just missed the first position in the IAS exam.”
Notice you use the quotation marks to enclose the exact words of a speaker, or a writer.
Use a single quotation marks to enclose a quotation within a quotation. Example:
– Professor Vibha asked her class “Do you agree with Samuel Johnson who once said that a
second marriage represents ‘the triumph of hope over experience’?”
(example from Wyrick)
The Apostrophe ( ’)
1 We use the apostrophe to indicate a contraction.
45
– It’s too bad that you didn’t pass the assessment.
– It’s is a contraction for ‘it is’.
2 We add an apostrophe to a noun to show possession. Example:
– Rajiv’s book, the lions’ share, women’s group
3 Add only an apostrophe to a plural noun ending in ‘s’ to show possession. Examples:
– The girls’ hostel
– Students’ common room
4 The apostrophe is also used to indicate omission of a letter in a word. Examples:
– I have – I’ve
– Must not – mustn’t
The dash ( – )
1 A dash can be used in place of a colon:
– The river is polluted – there is a chemical factory upstream.
2 A dash can also be used as an afterthought:
– He used to be very good at cricket – and football too, of course.
Hyphen ( – ) Hyphens can join two or more words together. Examples:
– Blue-eyed
– Broad-shoulder
– Out-of-date information.
2 When an adjective is made up of two or more words a hyphen is used. However, it is
not used when the same combination of words is not an adjective. Examples:
– Rita is a two-year-old girl.
but
– Rita is two years old.
3 Sometimes you have a choice to use a hyphen or not. Example:
– Living-room or living room
Check your progress 5
Punctuate the following passage appropriately. You have to use capital letters in the correct
manner.
not many animals hibernate the ground is so hard that they cannot make a deep hole to spend
the winter in but animals in a large part of the northern hemisphere spend every winter fast
asleep they go to sleep in all kinds of places red squirrels disappear inside trees bears use
caves frogs go deep under the mud and very many other animals dig tunnels in the earth a
good many animals sleep under the snow there is a lot of air in loose snow and this helps to
keep the cold out some warm blooded animals like the cat the dog or the wolf do not need to
hibernate they lead an active life which keeps up their usual body temperature even in very
cold winter weather but for a cold blooded creature such as a frog or a snake it is a different
matter when the air temperature is below freezing the creatures blood temperature drops too it
cannot move about in the usual way and then it has no choice it must simply lie down and
sleep to do that it must find a place where it can keep fairly warm and it must be a place
where its enemies cannot find it hibernation is more than sleep it is a very deep sleep the
animals temperature drops to just over 0°C and its heart beats very slowly people who find
hibernating animals asleep often think that they are dead the body feels so cold and the
creature may breathe only once every five minutes a hibernating animal cannot feel any pain
you can touch it or even give a hard pull to its tail without causing it to move or wake up in
its hibernating state it can even live in a poisonous atmosphere for a long time without any
bad effects hibernating in that way the animal can sleep all through the winter
3.6 LET US SUM UP
We cannot ignore grammar in language as it directly influences the effectiveness and
meaning of what we would like to convey. Language and grammar both go side by side, we
cannot separate one from another.
Forms of languages tell us about different sentence patterns and the inflections of nouns (for
indicating number/ gender), adjectives (for degrees of comparison), verbs (for time, tense and
aspect), pronouns (person, number, gender) etc. All this contributes to the overall meaning of
a sentence, paragraph, and discourse.
Language functions are more about communication and can be informative, expressive,
directive, phatic, ceremonial or performative.
There is no one-to-one co-relation between grammatical form and communicative function.
The same expression may convey different meanings in different contexts.
The time marker in most sentences is the verb phrase, which in most cases is corroborated by
an adverb. There are two tenses in the English language – present and past tense – while
future time is indicated in a variety of ways. The aspect of the verb tells us whether the action
is in progress (continuous) or if an action is continuing up to the present (perfective).
We hope you found this unit useful.
3.7 SUGGESTED READINGS
Agnihotri, R. K. and A. L. Khanna. 1996. English Grammar in Context: Ratnasagar. Ltd.
Delhi.
47
Carter, Ronald, Rebecca Hughes and Michael McCarthy. 2000 Exploring Grammar in
Context. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
Collins Cobuild. English Grammar. 1990. Rupa and Co.
Crystal, David. Rediscover Grammar. Longman, U. K.
Eastwood, John. 1999. Oxford Practice Grammar. Oxford University Press. Oxford.
Leech, Geoffrey and Jan Svarvik. 2000. A Communicative Grammar of English. Pearson
Education Asia Pte. Ltd. NOIDA.
Ur, Penny. 1988. Grammar Practice Activities. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
Websites Consulted/Referred to:
– Error Correction in classrooms.
– First, Second and Third Conditionals.
– Grammar for Advanced Learners.
3.8 ANSWERS
Check your progress 1
i. What is your plan for the evening? – Asking/confirming availability (before making a
request)
ii. Is that a suspension bridge or a cantilever bridge? – Distinguishing between two
alternatives.
iii. What sort of ring was Rini wearing? – Asking for description.
iv. Would you mind holding this packet for a minute? – Asking for assistance.
v. What do you think of the English teacher? – Asking for opinion
vi. Why does she always ask such stupid questions? – Expressing irritation
2 All the sentences are warning couched in different structures.
Check your progress 2
1 The functions of the verb forms in the sentences:
i. Water boils at 100 degree centigrade. Universal truth
ii. She plays the piano really well. Habit (repeated action)
iii. The easiest way to go to Delhi Haat is to take the Metro from Model Town. Giving
suggestions/advice
iv. Separate the egg whites and the yolks and keep them in two separate bowls. Beat the
whites stiff till they stand in peaks. Instructions
v. Anup wins the toss and decides to bat first. Present event (commentary)
vi. Rani plans to join her new job in September. She wants to rest for two weeks before
taking up the new assignment. Plans (proposed) for a future time.
48
2
i. Air pollution is becoming worse day by day. Progressive change
ii. The government is planning to allow even and odd number cars on alternate days on
the road. Proposed plan for future time
iii. I’m going to attend a mono-acting programme on Kabir by Shekhar Sen. (fixed) plan
for future time
iv. It is snowing in Shimla. Event happening at the time of talking
v. I’m forever looking for my room keys. An action that takes place regularly
3 Difference in the set of sentences is given below:
i(a) The sun rises in the east. (Universal truth. True for all times)
(b) The sun is rising over the horizon. What a beautiful sight! (Temporary event
happening at the time of speaking)
ii(a) In summer, it always rains in the evening in this place. (Frequent action)
(b) It is not raining but is pouring now. How can you think of going out?
(Temporary event happening at the time of speaking)
iii (a) Joy reads a lot of books. (Regular action)
(b) He is reading the Glass Palace by Amitav Ghosh now. (Event in progress but
definitely for a limited period)
iv (a) There was an explosion at the crowded Sarojini Nagar Market before Diwali.
(Event happened in the past)
(b) There has been an explosion at Sarojini Nagar market. Many people have lost
their lives. (Past event but the effects (result) can be felt in the present time).
v (a) The Mughal Gardens at Rashtrapati Bhavan have been opened for public.
Have you ever been there? (Event in a period leading up to present time)
(b) We went to the Mughal Gardens at Rashtrapati Bhavan last week. It is opened
for public viewing only for a fortnight. (Event took place in past time)
Check your progress 3
1 Completed sentences:
i If my daughter comes tomorrow, we will go to The Garden of Five Senses to see
the exhibition.
ii We will all be very happy if you spend the weekend with us.
iii If I have enough money, I will buy a small house in Ooty.
iv I could take your photo if I had a mobile with a good quality camera.
v If my husband agrees, I would buy a house in Kodaikanal.
vi If you had a dictionary, you could have checked the pronunciation or the meaning
of the word in the given context.
vii Sheila would build up a well-stocked children’s library, if only the School
Principal had agreed to her proposal.
viii If I were you, I would never neglect such high fever for many days.
ix I wouldn’t have caught a cold, if I had taken my umbrella with me in the
morning.
x We wouldn’t have missed the train if we had not been held up in the traffic jam.
49
xi If we had taken the earlier train, we could have visited the Qutub Minar in the
afternoon.
xii If we had taken leave for a few more days, we could have stayed here for a few
more days. This is such a quiet and peaceful place.
2 What the speaker means:
i Riya could have worn her new dress, if only the tailor had altered it on time.
Riya could not wear her new dress because the tailor did not do the alterations on
time.
ii If you had told me before, I wouldn’t have shared our Sunday plans with Prateek.
I shared our Sunday plans with Prateek because you never told me not to./ I did not
know it was to be kept secret.
iii Fever for over a week should not be neglected. If I were you, I would have gone to the
doctor by now.
Go visit a doctor. The fever may be indicative of more serious illness than you think.
iv If Tina had asked me, I would have suggested wearing something warmer.
Tina is wearing something very light which is not very warm. (She may feel cold
later.)
v If only Ramkumar was not so short-tempered, his colleagues would have liked him
better.
Ramkumar becomes angry very quickly. His colleagues do not like him much.
Check your progress 4
1 The contexts of the following sentences:
ii The chicken breasts are cleaned, washed and then cut into half inch broad strips.
Recipe/ instructions for making a chicken dish.
How to cook is more important than who the author of the cook book is.
iii The order to Public Works Department (PWD) to carry out patchwork on Delhi roads
was revoked.
News Paper Report. Obviously, the administrative authorities / government in power.
iv A cricketer, who was charged for match fixing, was banned for five years.
News report/Newspaper report. The cricket Regulatory body alone has such powers.
v Common sleep disorders that rob many people from a good night’s sleep can be
classified in four categories.
An article in a magazine or any text book chapter on sleep disorder. Impersonal style
is more acceptable in scientific writings.
2 These are suggested answers. Your answers may be different.
i The State Government has been compelled to deploy Police force fearing arson
and violence by the rioters.
ii Although the environmentalists are protesting vehemently, the Japanese
government is known to have given permission to kill whales for sale in markets.
50
iii Classmates have abducted one of their teen-aged friends and have hidden him in
the empty school premises over the weekend.
iv Detailed proposals would be submitted in the forthcoming council meetings
suggesting alternative measures to avoid regular traffic jams.
v New methods were discovered by medical researchers to preserve tissues without
the use of ice.
3 Open ended.
Check your progress 5
Not many animals hibernate; the ground is so hard that they cannot make a deep hole to
spend the winter in. But animals in a large part of the northern hemisphere spend every
winter fast asleep.
They go to sleep in all kinds of places. Red squirrels disappear inside trees, bears use caves,
frogs go deep under the mud, and very many other animals dig tunnels in the earth. A good
many animals sleep under the snow; there is a lot of air in loose snow, and this helps to keep
the cold out.
Some warm-blooded animals, like the cat, the dog or the wolf, do not need to hibernate; they
lead an active life which keeps up their usual body temperature even in very cold winter
weather. But for a cold-blooded creature such as a frog or a snake it is a different matter.
When the air temperature is below freezing, the creature’s blood temperature drops too; it
cannot move about in the usual way. And then it has no choice: it must simply lie down and
sleep. To do that, it must find a place where it can keep fairly warm; and it must be a place
where its enemies cannot find it.
Hibernation is more than sleep. It is a very deep sleep. The animal’s temperature drops to just
over 0°C, and its heart beats very slowly. People who find hibernating animals asleep often
think that they are dead: the body feels so cold, and the creature may breathe only once every
five minutes. A hibernating animal cannot feel any pain; you can touch it or even give a hard
pull to its tail without causing it to move or wake up. In its hibernating state it can even live
in a poisonous atmosphere for a long time without any bad effects. Hibernating in that way,
the animal can sleep all through the winter.
Block-2 Writing Effectively
BLOCK
2
WRITING EFFECTIVELY
UNIT 1
The Basics of Writing 04
UNIT 2
Developing Different Types of Paragraphs 14
UNIT 3
Writing a Composition 41
UNIT 4
Different Types of Writing 56
BLOCK 2 WRITING EFFECTIVELY
Introduction
Block 2 Writing Effectively consists of four units in which we take you to the heart of the
writing process.
In Unit 1 The Basics of Writing we help you to explore the writing process by helping you to
ask the right questions: i) How do I decide on my topic? ii) Where do I look for ideas, examples,
arguments? iii) Who are my readers? iv) What is my purpose for writing? We then take you
through the process of writing from planning, writing drafts, conferencing, writing the final
draft and then revising and proofreading.
In Unit 2 Developing Different Types of Paragraphs we make you aware of how a paragraph
is constructed, especially emphasizing on the topic sentence and linking devices. We show you
models of different types of paragraphs and give you practice in writing them.
In Unit 3 Writing a Composition, we go to composition /essay writing, giving you a range of
different genres, and the purpose and organization of these genres. We also acquaint you with
strategies of writing effective beginnings and endings. This will skill you on any kind of writing
that you may need.
Finally, in Unit 4 Different Types of Writing, we give examples of different formats of
writing, from filling forms, writing letters and emails to writing of reports. All these you are
likely to encounter in your life.
As you have gathered from this block, you need to work hard on your writing and be committed
to it.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The material we have used is purely for educational purposes. Every effort has been made to
trace the copyright holders of material used in this book. Should any infringement have
occurred, the publishers and editors apologise, and will be pleased to make the necessary
corrections in future editions of this book. Unit 4 of Block 2 has been adapted from Unit 16,
Block 4, CTE 05 course of CTE programme of IGNOU. Units 2 and 3 have been adapted from
the course FEG 02 of BDP programme of IGNOU.
UNIT 1 THE BASICS OF WRITING
Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Warm Up
1.2 Introduction
1.3 Understanding How Writing Helps
1.3.1 How Writing Helps
1.3.2 Can Writing be Learned?
1.4 Thinking Critically of Your Writing
1.5 Let Us Sum Up
1.6 Suggested Readings
1.7 Answers
1.0 OBJECTIVES
In this Unit, we are making you aware of the reasons why it is necessary to write well. We
emphasize how being an effective writer will enable you to develop personally, socially and
academically. The steps to writing well are clearly delineated. The importance of revision is
emphasized and ways to troubleshoot, proofread and edit are enunciated. Finally, to write well,
you must be a reflective person and thinking critically. We have shown you the means to do
that.
1.1 WARM UP
• Can you recall your earliest experience of writing? What did you write? Were you
encouraged by your parents/ teachers? How did you feel?
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• Think of a turning point when your attitude to writing changed? What happened? Why
did you change?
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• Who has influenced you the most where your writing is concerned? Your teacher? A
friend? A family member? Anyone else?
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1.2 INTRODUCTION
As students we tend to write all the time—it could be messaging texts on Whatsapp, having
our blog where we showcase our ideas or skills, or writing terse messages on Facebook or
Twitter. It could also be formal emails applying for jobs, or assignments we have to do and
submit to our teachers.
This is our practical need. But learning to write effectively is important for other reasons as
well. Why do we think writing is important? Well, writing helps you to think, to be creative
yet organized and logical. When you write, and this pertains to any type of writing, you
generate ideas and content which you must arrange in systematic ways to be an effective writer.
By combining words into phrases and sentences and often joining them with conjunctions, a
writer creates complex new ideas. For example, the word and brings out additions to the point,
but emphasizes differences and because gives reasons for your ideas. Writing also helps you
to reflect on what happened by suggesting solutions to problems, deepens your ability to
analyze and synthesize different points of view.
Since we have to write so much and in such diverse forms and modes, why not do this task
really well. In this unit we will reflect on the writing process and suggest ways to improve our
writing skill.
Check your progress 1
1. Which type of writing do you enjoy most? Why?
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2. Which social media do you write on most? Why?
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1.3 UNDERSTANDING HOW WRITING HELPS
Let us take a closer look at how practising good writing may help us.
1.3.1 How Writing Helps
As you are probably aware, writing helps you develop many skills which are helpful for your
academic life and which will be useful later at your work life – when you have to write letters,
reports, proposals, etc.
• Writing helps you remember what you are studying, by helping you to make coherent
notes, analyse, synthesize and summarise information from different sources.
• Writing as you read by taking notes, summarizing, responding to assumptions/arguments
in a text, makes you a better reader. This kind of reflection enhances your understanding
and helps you develop new insights. It helps you become a critical thinker.
• Attempting different kinds of writing contributes to learning in different ways, giving
you an awareness of different genres, their possibilities and arrangements. An expository
composition helps you organise and present what you have learnt with clarity. You are
able to marshal facts and array them in order of importance. A narrative helps you
sequence events and highlight the important ones. Arguing a position teaches you not
only to support your reasons but also anticipate objections to your arguments and learn
to refute them.
• Writing will also foster your personal development. For example, writing about
controversial issues will help you examine your basic beliefs. When you write about
events in your life and in literature, it helps you understand the significance of these
events. In other word, you become a more reflective and thinking person.
• As a student, you are aware of how writing can contribute to success in your academic
life, since all academic work involves writing. Finally in your examinations, it is only
your reading and writing skill which is assessed. Even your reading comprehension is
measured through the writing skill. So, you need to really practice to be a good writer.
• Later on, at the workplace, you will need to use writing to get jobs; while in the job you
will be expected to write effective and correctly worded emails, memos, reports,
proposals and so on. If your language is faulty or your ideas are ill-organised, it will
affect your career-enhancement.
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Check your progress 2
1. How does good writing help you in your academic life?
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2. How does writing develop you as a person?
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1.3.2 Can Writing be Learned?
Many people believe that people who are good at writing do not need to spend a lot of time
learning to write – they are born writers. Writing comes naturally to them. However, this is
not true. Writing research shows that all good writers also keep learning how to write and
they constantly practice their skill. So, learning to write is essential to developing the writing
skill. What do you need to do in order to be an effective writer?
i Learn to write by reading: Reading extensively will enable you to become a better
writer. All good writers are avid readers who not only read for enjoyment and
information, but also to hone their craft.
One of the important ways in which reading helps is, it enables you to understand a
particular genre or type of writing. For example, a narrative will follow a certain
trajectory which will be very different from an argumentative essay or a persuasive
piece.
Although individual texts of a particular genre would be different from each other, they
nonetheless will follow a certain pattern that is quite predictable – and these are known
as conventions. These conventions are broad frameworks and not rigid formulas, so a
writer has a lot of flexibility for creativity and inventiveness.
To understand conventions of a certain genre, you need to read examples of that genre
so that you can recognize the general pattern as well find room for innovation. For
example, you have to understand how a narrative is different from a persuasive piece.
ii One of the best ways to become a good writer is by constantly writing. Practice will
make your writing more thoughtful and ideational. Fortunately, all of us use social
media. Blogging about your experiences or your skills is a great way to improve your
writing. You could also keep a journal or a diary of your special moments. This will
also help you write continuously, which will help you write better.
iii. Of course, it is important to ceaselessly enhance your vocabulary, and convert your
passive vocabulary into an active one by using news words in your writing. In other
words, become ‘word-conscious’ as also a ‘word seeker’.
iv. It is very important to be aware of the purpose for which you are writing and have
knowledge of who your readers are. This will make your writing more focused and
precise. Whatever the writing situation, most of us as writers have various purposes in
mind. It could be an article for a college magazine or a blog on travel, or about travel and
food, and so on. Any piece of writing should always include self-discovery and selfpresentation.
Remember, most writing is meant to be read by others. Sometimes the audience is
specific as in college essays or job applications. More often the audience is more general,
as in an academic assignment in a college course, to be read by the teacher or fellow
students.
Let us take an example of writing of an event from your own life. Following this approach
about being aware of your readers. These are some of the questions that you could ask
yourself when you are writing a narrative piece:
• Who are my readers?
• What are they likely to think of me as they read about this event?
• What do I want them to think of me?
• How much of the event is likely to be familiar to my readers?
• What might surprise them?
• How can I help my readers to understand the significance of this event in my life?
• Does it suggest to the readers the social and cultural forces that shaped me through
this event?
v. The next step is to attempt to understand your subject or topic. Few writers can have a
complete understanding of their subject or topic when they begin to write. For most of
us, writing is a means of discovery, that is, it is a way to learn about the subject, try out
the ideas and information you have collected, review them from time to time, explore
connections and implication. Remember, ‘writing is not something you do after
thinking, but in order to help you to think’ (Axelrod and Cooper, 2012).
Obviously, when you have to write an assignment explaining a concept oran expository piece
regarding a topic in your course, you cannot and should not communicate everything about it.
A writer must limit the scope of his/her subject. This is again dependent on the purpose, topic
and your audience.
An effective writer constructs a reader-friendly plan by dividing the information into clearly
distinguishable parts or sub-topics. This gives readers cues or road signs to guide them through
your assignment. So, a writer will use some of these building blocks: defining, classifying or
dividing, comparing and contrasting, illustrating with examples, reporting, explaining cause
and effects, and so on. Of course, you must only use those building blocks as are required for
your assignment. To convince the reader of the trustworthiness/authenticity of your
information, you must acknowledge the expert writers that you have consulted.
So how do you explore your subject and gain an overview of it. There are two main ways in
which you can do that.
1) Discovering what you already know about the subject. Consider what you already
know about the subject and why you find it interesting. Write quickly, without planning
and organizing. Check your class lecture notes first, before you look at other sources.
2) Doing research is essential. To find comprehensive, updated information of your
topic, you should locate it in relevant articles, books, on the internet, etc. Doing an
internet search often creates a focus for your assignment. Bookmark websites that
appear useful and be sure to include the URL, the title of the site, the date when the
information was posted, and the date you accessed it. Similarly, make careful records
of the author, title, publication information, page number of the articles, journals and
books you refer to. This will help you go back to the sites as well acknowledge them if
you make use of them.
After the research where you take copious notes, you come to the writing stage. Most
writers do not write out a text as a whole piece, but focus on one thing and then on
another. Writing does not progress in a linear, step-by-step fashion; in fact, it proceeds
recursively. This means that writers return again and again to the ideas that they are
trying to clarify, extend or argue.
Writers, therefore, plan and then revise their plan, draft and then revise their drafts,
write and then rewrite. This is known as the process approach to writing and it is
important to follow such an approach:
a) Writing a plan: It is important to write an outline. This may be in points, and remember
these points will be changed if required. In fact, your plan must be dynamic and flexible.
a. Writing a draft: While writing a draft, you will benefit from frequent pauses to reread
what you have written. Rereading helps you to add an example, choose different words
and fill in a gap in the logic of an argument. Rereading leads to substantial rethinking
and revising; i.e. cutting, reorganizing, rewriting.
b) Conferencing: Sometimes it may be impossible to discover problems in your own
writing – perhaps some ideas are not explained adequately or are not sequenced
satisfactorily. There may be mistakes in punctuation, spelling, vocabulary or grammar.
For this reason, it may be a good idea to show your draft to others to read. You may
consult your teachers, seniors or even classmates.
c) Revising: Review the comments of your friends and teachers and incorporate them if
they are reasonable. Check for spelling, punctuation and grammatical errors. See where
you can improve your vocabulary or add clarity to your ideas. Then make another draft.
Axelrod and Cooper (2012) have suggested interesting ways to troubleshoot your draft. Let’s
look at the ways we can take a relook at our draft in a meaningful way:
Focus:
– Is the focus too broad, i.e. have I covered too much and a lot of it does not directly
relate to my topic?
– Focus is too narrow, i.e. I don’t have enough to write about.
Readability:
– Is the organisation logical? Look for a topic sentence in each paragraph and see if there
is a fluent flow of ideas.
– Is your beginning interesting for your readers?
Is the ending summarizing the information for the readers and speculating about the future?
Appropriate explanatory strategies:
– Information not getting through clearly to your readers – why?
– More information required about certain aspects of the topic, so you need to do
additional research on your essay.
– Definitions need to be worked out better.
– You need to consider adding synonyms and antonyms for terms you are defining.
– You may need to supplement your writing with illustrations and examples.
– Are visuals required – tables, graphs, photographs help to explain your points better.
Good writers mistakenly equate revision with editing and proofreading. As we have seen, it is
much more– and refers to global changes that writers make in the purpose, focus, organisation
and development of their writing. Most of this process happens continuously as one writes. Of
course, some writers quickly want to write their first draft and go over it bit by bit.
Editing and Proofreading
Assignments which are revised, well edited and proofread always are appreciated. If you are
writing by hand, especially, you have to check for punctuation, grammar and spelling mistakes.
Using a computer helps you to some extent to prevent gross mistakes but does not help with
organization of ideas or style. To develop a flow of ideas and a sense of style you must practice
writing and enjoying do so.
Let us look at editing first. Editing deals with surface errors—mistakes in punctuation, spelling,
word choice, grammar and sentence sense. A good editor also keeps an eye for clarity,
conciseness and emphasis. Let us discuss some tried and tested techniques of editing which
you could use on your draft.
• Keep your dictionary and thesaurus handy to check for spelling, usage, meaning of
words in doubt and synonyms. If you are working on the laptop, be sure to use these
tools.
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• Eliminate the common mistakes which all of us make, such as it’s/its, lets/let’s,
who’s/whose, and so on.
• Look out for the problem areas in your writing which your teachers have commented
on.
• Reading aloud of your drafts also helps as you get to hear what your eye may have
missed,
• Some of the grammatical errors you could look out for are: fused sentences, misused
past-perfect verbs, order of adjectives, adjective clauses with misplaced commas, and
so on.
Proofread your final draft a couple of times. Also check if you have formatted it appropriately
and numbered the pages. Be sure to write your name and roll number.
Check your progress 3
1. Why do you think being a good reader can help you become a good writer?
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2. What would you do, personally, to be a good writer?
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3. Talk about the ways you can enhance your vocabulary.
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4. How would you write an essay following the process approach?
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1.4 THINKING CRITICALLY OF YOUR WRITING
As we said at the start, reflecting on your own experience, knowledge, reading helps you
become a better and more versatile writer. Reflecting enables you to be aware of what you
already know and what you still need to learn. Reflecting helps you to be aware of your own
thinking process. It will enable you to ask questions about the topic, which genre it belongs to,
what is the purpose of writing and who is the reader. This will help you to understand your
12
writing process creatively and expand your understanding of the genre. We have already
discussed this in the first unit of the course.
Check your progress 4
Write about 500 words on occasion when writing helped you accomplish something. Here are
possibilities you could think about:
• When your writing made others sit up and notice you
• When your writing helped you get better marks
• An occasion when writing enabled you to express your emotions.
• An occasion when your writing influenced people/someone.
• When you dealt with a personal or academic problem through writing.
(You could use any of these points or use others of your own).
1.5 LET US SUM UP
In this unit we made you realize that since you need to write all the time, you must do it
effectively and with ease. We also helped you discover how being a good writer would help
you in your academic life and later when you join the work force. In fact, if you are a good
writer, you are more likely to be a successful student and employee. We also took you through
the steps which would enable you to be a good writer and helped you go through the process
of writing. We guided you to the questions that you need to ask when you are revising your
work. Finally, we emphasized on the fact that to be a good writer you need to be a reflective
person with critical thinking abilities.
1.6 SUGGESTED READINGS
Axelrod, Rise B., Cooper R. Charles, (2012) Concise Guide to Writing. New York, Bedford/St
Martin’s.
Wyrick, Jean (2005) Steps to Writing Well – with Additional Readings. Boston: Thomson
Wadsworth
1.7 ANSWERS
Check your progress 1
Write the answer in your own words.
Check your progress 2
1. How good writing helps you in your academic life:
• Helps in note-taking, summarizing
• Understanding different genres and organising material accordingly
(add more points from your experience)
2 How writing develops you as a person:
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• Helps you examine your beliefs
• Enables you to understand the significance of the events in your life.
• Become a more reflective, thinking person
(add more points from your own experience)
Check your progress 3
1 How being a good reader can help you become a good writer:
• Can understand different kinds of genres if you read widely
• Understand their patterns
• Enhance your passive vocabulary
2 Open ended.
3 Open ended.
4 Writing an essay following the process approach:
• Finding a purpose
• Exploring your subject
• Understanding your reader
• Writing an outline
• Writing a draft
• Conferencing with others
• Revising using troubleshooting tools
• Proofreading
UNIT 2: DEVELOPING DIFFERENT TYPES OF
PARAGRAPHS
Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 What is a Paragraph?
2.2 Developing the Topic
2.2.1 Coherence
2.2.2 Cohesion
2.3 Organisation of a Paragraph
2.3.1 Chronological Sequence
2.3.2 Biographical Writing
2.3.3 Narrative
2.3.4 Process
2.3.5 Spatial Relationships
2.3.6 Class Relationships
2.4 Types of Paragraphs
2.4.1 Illustration
2.4.2 Description
2.4.3 Cause and Effect
2.4.4 Definition
2.4.5 Comparison and Contrast
2.5 Let Us Sum Up
2.6 Answers
2.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through the unit, you should be able to:
• understand the organization of a paragraph
• understand different techniques of developing a paragraph
• write paragraphs which follow the natural and expected time sequence
• write paragraphs based on description, simple process, space relationship, class
relationship
2.1 WHAT IS A PARAGRAPH?
Do you know that most pieces of writing require more than one paragraph? Mastering the art
of writing paragraphs is essential to get success in any form of writing, whether it is a letter, a
report, a newspaper article or any piece of academic writing that you do in the course of your
studies. In these longer pieces of writing, paragraphs generally introduce new ideas to develop
the central theme. The division into paragraphs also prevents boredom as it provides a physical
break on the page.
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You know a paragraph is unified by a central, controlling idea or theme. This idea or theme
is called the topic of the paragraph. It is sometimes expressed at some place in the paragraph
by one sentence, which is usually called the topic sentence. You can write the topic sentence
in the form of a statement or even a problem. This topic sentence you can either write in the
beginning of a paragraph, or at the end or even in the middle of the paragraph. Very often you
can find that there may not be a topic sentence in a paragraph but it may be implied within the
paragraph.
Check Your Progress 1
Identify the topic of the paragraph and the topic sentence in the paragraph given below:
The vast majority of people, wherever they live and whatever their occupation, come in contact
with animals in one way or another and have to deal with them. It is obvious that the hunter
has to know the ways of his quarry, that the farmer must be aware of the habits of his farmyard
animals and of creatures that damage his crops; that the fisherman must know when and where
to find his fish and how to outwit them. Even the modern city dweller meets animals. He may
want to ward off the roaches in his kitchen or he may keep a dog or a bird and grow familiar
with the way his pet behaves. All over the world, among primitive tribes as well as in modern
society, there are those who delight in the observation of animals, and there is a growing
awareness of the fact that sharing our world with our fellow creatures is like travelling together
– we enjoy being surrounded by other beings who, like ourselves, are deeply absorbed in the
adventure of living. There is a growing sense of marvel and also of affinity.
(from Niko Tinbergen (ed.) ‘An infant science’ in Animal Behaviour, Time-life Books)
When you begin a paragraph with a topic sentence it helps both the writer and the reader. As a
writer, you will have less difficulty in constructing a unified paragraph because you will relate
every sentence to the topic sentence and the central idea it expresses. Moreover your reader
will know immediately what the paragraph is about because the opening sentence states the
central idea. If you write the topic sentence at the end then the advantage is that all the sentences
build up to this topic sentence and the conclusion becomes more effective. However, placing
the topic sentence at the end or in the middle is a more difficult skill.
Check Your Progress 2
The topic sentence of the paragraph below is hidden somewhere within the paragraph. Find it
and place it in the correct position.
In Mother’s Shadow
During its early weeks, it depends completely upon her, and she in turn, fastens her attention
upon it, although from time to time she will allow the other females to hold and fondle it.
Sheltered by its mother, the growing infant gradually widens its contact with the outside world.
Though its first week is spent in sleeping and nursing, by its second it is already stumbling
about and being restrained by a yank of the tail or leg. Nothing could be more important to the
development of an infant Indian Langur than its relationship with its mother. At four weeks,
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on unsteady feet, it ventures forth and discovers the world or at least that part of it within safe
three or four feet of its mother.
[Adapted from Eimerl, S. and De Vors, I. (eds.) ‘The Monkey’s Success in the Trees’ in The
Primates, Time-Life Books.]
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2.2 DEVELOPING THE TOPIC
In order to develop the central theme of a paragraph, you have to expand the idea contained in
the topic sentence. This you can do by adding more information, explanation, examples,
illustrations, etc. to the idea you have expressed in the topic sentence. If you read the paragraph
given in Check Your Progress 1 again, you will notice that this paragraph is developed mainly
by adding examples and it can be analysed as follows:
1. Topic sentence: “The vast majority of people, wherever they live and whatever their
occupation, come in contact with animals in one way or another and have to deal with
them.”
2. Examples given to develop the paragraph:
a. the hunter
b. the farmer
c. the fishermen
d. the city-dweller
3. Summing up:
This is done by stating that there is a common bond between humans and other creatures.
Check Your Progress 3
Read the paragraph given below and write the analysis of the paragraph based on the
information given above.
Two main circumstances govern the relationship of living things in the sea: the unbelievably
lavish fruitfulness of marine life forms, and the utter ruthlessness with which the larger
creatures eat the smaller ones. Somebody has calculated, for instance, if all the eggs laid by the
codfish were hatched and grew by maturity, the Atlantic would be packed solid with codfish
within six years. But nature does not let this happen. Only an infinitesimal fraction of all codfish
eggs ever become full-sized cod, and wastage among other fish is as great. One sea creature in
about 10 million escapes the usual violent death inside another sea creature.
[from Leonard Engles (ed.) ‘The Great Pyramid of Life’ in The Sea, Time-Life Books.]
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2.2.1 Coherence
When you look at different paragraphs, each paragraph is developed slightly depending upon
the information that you want to convey to the reader. Moreover when you write a paragraph
of your own, choose the topic and write down all the points that you know about the topic. As
you make your list, do not stop to question whether a detail fits or not; any of the points that
do not fit can be removed later. This will help you generate new ideas, and also give you
something concrete to work on.
However, when you start writing, see that every sentence contributes to the central idea, which
is contained in the topic sentence. Only then your paragraph will have unity. Also to have unity
in your paragraph, you need to understand that other than topic sentences and supporting details
(the sentences which support the topic sentence) it should be coherent. In a coherent paragraph,
you as a writer take the reader logically and smoothly from one idea to the next. The reader
must clearly recognize that sentence logically leads to the next.
Check Your Progress 4
Read the sentences given below, they are part of a paragraph but not in the correct order.
Reorder these sentences to form a coherent paragraph.
a) When the box is removed, the ant will not continue on its former course, but will start
off rapidly in a new direction.
b) This can easily be demonstrated by a simple experiment.
c) Place a light-tight box over an ant carrying food back to its nest, and keep it imprisoned
for a few hours.
d) This new route will differ from the old by exactly the angle that the sun has shifted
across the sky during the time the ant was imprisoned.
e) Many insects rely upon the direction of the sun’s rays as a sort of compass.
2.2.2 Cohesion
Another technique which brings about coherence in a paragraph is the use of cohesive devices
or signal words or signposts between sentences or at the beginning of sentences. These
words/phrases will help you as a writer to move smoothly from one sentence to the next and
show logical relationship between sentences. It is explained in the example below:
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Example:
Man has been able to spread across the earth so widely for four main reasons. First, he is a
terrestrial animal, and not restricted to forest. Secondly, he can cross any natural barriers, such
as deserts, oceans and mountains. Moreover, he can live off a very wide variety of food. Most
important of all, he has developed culture; he has learned to make clothes and build fires
which allow him to live in climates where he would otherwise perish. To a large extent, he
shares some of these advantages with monkeys. They, too, can move over unfrosted land. They
too, can cross some natural barrier, as they have the ability to swim. And they too, can digest
many kinds of food. Thus, a single species of baboon has spread across Africa from Dakar in
the west to Ethiopia in the east, and south all the way to the Cape of Good Hope. Similarly,
Macaques have done at least as well. One species, the rhesus macaque, is equally at home in
forest, in open cultivated fields, and inside heavily populated cities.
[from Eimerl, S. and De Vors, I. (eds.) ‘The Monkey’s Success in the Trees’ in The Primates,
Time-Life Books.]
From the above example, it is clear for you that cohesive devices are like signposts in a
paragraph. They enable us to follow the writer’s line of thought by words that relate one idea
to another. In the above example, the words/word phrases First, Secondly, Moreover, Most
important of all indicate the four main reasons why humans have been able to spread so widely
across the earth. Most important of all shows that some reasons are more important than others.
Similarly shows the relationship between the macaques and the baboons.
The following list includes other words and phrases that function as cohesive devices/signal
words/signposts:
• To express result: therefore, as a result, consequently, thus, hence
• To give examples: for example, for instance, specifically, as an illustration
• To express comparison: similarly, likewise
• To express contrast: however, nevertheless, on the other hand
• To express addition: moreover, furthermore, also, besides, in addition
• To indicate time: now, later, meanwhile, since, then, after that, before that time
• To express sequence: first, second, third, then, next, finally
Cohesive devices or signal words or signposts used to link sentences can also be effective for
transition from one paragraph to another. You will study about that in detail in the coming Unit.
Check Your Progress 5
Develop a paragraph based on the topic sentence given below with the title as well as some
notes which might help you to develop it. While developing the paragraph, use only those
points which will support the topic sentence and leave out the rest. The paragraph should not
be more than 100-150 words.
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The Secret of the Cockroach’s Survival
Topic Sentence: The cockroach is one of the earth’s oldest creatures, older than even dinosaurs.
• survived because it can live anywhere ……
from coldest to warmest climate ……….
city as well as forest ……….
• cockroach is a clean insect
• can eat anything, including flowerbeds, paint, soap, wood ………
• some species are large, others are small
• can even live without food and water for months
• usually black or brown in colour
• keeps off predatory animals because of dirty smell from scent glands
2.3 ORGANISATION OF A PARAGRAPH
In the last section, you have read about how to develop the topic in a paragraph. Now you are
going to deal in more detail with some of the principles observed in organizing paragraphs.
These relate to chronological (time) sequencing, spatial relationships and class relationships.
2.3.1 Chronological Sequence
What do you understand by chronological sequencing? By chronological sequencing you need
to know that you arrange the events in the order in which they occur in time, beginning with
the first event, going on to the next event, and so on until you come to the last event. This is
the method that you normally use when you tell a simple story, describe a process, report
incidents and events, or write a biographical sketch.
2.3.2 Biographical Writing
When you write biographies, you will probably realize that the cues used to organise the
biographical details chronologically are the dates mentioned in the text. You will find that most
biographies are organized sequentially in a clear time frame, according to the dates of important
events.
Your daily lives are also generally organized in a similar fashion, where you see time moving
in one direction – from the past to the present and from the present to the future. Yet, there are
moments in your lives which are more important than others and which you tend to highlight.
If you write about the events, you may break the natural chronological sequence to emphasise
these occurrences.
Check Your Progress 6
Given below is a biographical sketch of Ronald Ross, who discovered how malaria was
transmitted. The sentences are not in the correct order. Arrange them in the correct
chronological sequence.
i. He started to study malaria, and during a vacation in England in 1894, met Patrick
Mason, thirteen years his senior and learned in tropical diseases.
ii. In 1897, at the age of forty, Ross made one of the greatest of medical discoveries. He
proved that malaria was transmitted by mosquitoes, showed how the transmissions
occurred, and identified the particular kind of mosquito that was responsible for it.
iii. He was educated in England and returned to India in 1881 as an officer in the Indian
Medical Service.
iv. Ronald Ross was born at Almora, in the Himalayas, in 1857.
v. Manson directed him to an effective study of the disease, and with this help and
encouragement, Ross solved the mystery in three years.
vi. Then, about 1890, his medical conscience was stirred by the appalling disease and
misery with which he was surrounded in the course of his work as an army surgeon in
India, and he began to feel that he ought to try to do something about it.
[from S.G. Crowther: Six great Doctors. Hamish Hamilton Ltd. London]
2.3.3 Narrative
In more complex pieces of writing, you can manipulate time if you wish. You can move
backwards and forwards through time, according to the purpose in writing. In general, writers
use unexpected chronological sequences when they want to emphasize something other than
the time sequence which is usually used by the writers when they use the narrative style of
chronological sequence.
In the passage given below, the writer has used such a complex time movement, why do you
think so? When you read the passage, you may realize that it is because he wants to highlight
the happy and comfortable life of the protagonist and his family lived in the past, in contrast to
the unfortunate circumstances they have fallen into now.
Example:
It was the same story everywhere. He returned home in the evening; his heart sank as he turned
into his street behind the Market. His wife would be invariably be standing at the door with the
children behind her, looking down the street. What anxious, eager faces they had! So much of
trembling, hesitating hope that he would come back home with some magic fulfillment. As he
remembered the futile way in which he searched for a job, and the finality with which people
dismissed him, he wished that his wife and children had less trust in him. His wife looked at
his face, understood and turned in without uttering a word; the children took the cue and filed
in silently. Rama Rao tried to improve matters with a forced heartiness. ‘Well, well. How are
we all today?’ To which he received mumbling, feeble responses from his wife and children.
It rent his heart to see them in this condition.
There at the extension how this girl would sparkle with flowers and a bright dress; she had
friendly neighbours, a women’s club, and everything to keep her happy there. But now she
hardly had the heart or the need to change in the evenings, for she spent all her time cooped up
in the kitchen. The house in the Extension had a compound and they romped with a dozen other
children: It was possible to have numerous friends in the fashionable nursery school. But here
the children had no friends, and could play only in the backyard of the house. Their shirts were
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beginning to show tears and frays. Formerly they were given new clothes once in three months.
Rama Rao lay in bed and spent sleepless nights over it.
(From R. K. Narayan: ‘Out of Business’ in An Astrologer’s Day and other Stories, Indian
Thought Publications, Mysore)
Now let us analyse the movement of time in the passage:
• The story begins at a particular time:
‘He returned home in the evening; ….. behind the Market.’
• It flashes in the past:
‘His wife would be invariably be standing at the door….he would come back home with
magic fulfillment.’
• In fact, here we see a complex use of different times. Rama Rao uses his knowledge of the
past to anticipate the coming scene.
• Again we see a complex interplay of the past and the present:
‘As he remembered the futile way in which he searched for a job, ….. had less trust in him.’
• Present time:
‘His wife looked at his face, …… see them in this condition.’
When you write a composition involving chronological sequencing, the specific time
expressions given below may help you work out the time relationships. These relationships (1)
mark a specific time, or (2) show the relationship between periods of time.
1. Specific Time Indicators:
just then…………… at the beginning of May …………
in those days………… at 6 o’clock …………..
last Monday …………. six years ago ………………..
in 1954 …………….
2. Time Sequences:
a. Earlier Time:
i. Until then, he lived/she had lived …………………………..
ii By (then) ……………………………………………………
iii Up to that time …………………………………………….
iv. Prior to …………………………………………………….
b. Same time:
i. During this period, he fell ill …………………………….
ii. While working at …………………………………………
iii. In the meantime ………………………………………….
iv. At that moment …………………………………………..
v. It was then that he ……………………………………..…
c. Later time:
i. After this, he went ……………………………………….
ii. Subsequently …………………………………………….
iii. Afterwards ………………………………………………
iv. Then ……………………………………………………..
v. After a while …………………………………………….
vi. Later on ………………………………………………….
vii. Eventually ……………………………………………….
viii. In the long run …………………………….
Check Your Progress 7
Write a paragraph of about 150 words, developing the points given below. The first sentence
is given but the points are not in chronological order.
My School Days
When I think of my school days, the year stands out most vividly in my mind is when I was in
Class 8. Miss D’Souza was the class teacher – instilled love of Shakespeare – Earlier years
uneventful, but happy – Later years passed very quickly – got high marks. Now as English
teacher – still love Shakespeare – pass it on to my students.
………………………………………………………………………………………………..
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2.3.4 Process
Another type of writing which involves chronological sequencing is what is known as process
analysis. Like narration, a process is organized chronologically. But here, the natural time order
is strictly followed, i.e. starting at the beginning of the process, and continuing step-by-step to
the end. It involves how to give instructions and how to explain the process. Both are different
in manner of telling, in the first one, you are telling someone to do something whereas in the
second one, you are mentioning step-by-step procedure to complete the task.
Instructions:
When you tell someone how to do something, how to perform a specific task you are giving
instructions. The instructions may involve giving directions for preparing a recipe, or informing
someone about the procedure for conducting a scientific experiment. If your instructions are
carefully thought out and planned, they should enable your readers to carry out the task
successfully. To write accurate and easily understood instructions, you must keep the following
things in mind:
• You must thoroughly understand the process that you are describing, and if possible,
try it out yourself. This will help you anticipate any difficulties that might happen.
• Inform your readers of the special tools or materials needed for the job. These could be
mentioned right at the beginning, in a section labeled ‘Tools Required’ or ‘Materials
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Required’. This is to enable the reader to have all his/her tools ready before making a
beginning.
• Alert your readers to be careful with steps that require precise timing or measurement.
• Warn your readers of potentially dangerous steps or materials. For example, if there are
some other materials which are flammable, let your readers know before they reach that
step.
• Give illustrations if you think your instructions will be better understood that way.
Illustrations can simplify instructions by reducing the number of words necessary to
explain something. You will be able to focus your attention on the steps making up the
instructions, rather than on the description of the various parts of the apparatus or
equipment.
• Use linking words which will make clear the sequence in which events or the stages in
a process occur.
The table below gives some common linking devices used when describing a process:
Beginning Steps Middle Steps Final Steps
First(ly), Second Finally
Initially, Third, etc. In the end,
To start with, Next, Then, Lastly,
After that,
When………,
Subsequently,
At the same time………..
Explaining a Process:
When you prepare instructions, your purpose is to help your reader to complete a specific task
by following the step-by-step procedure you have outlined. If you are asked to write an
explanation of a process, on the other hand, your purpose will be quite different. You will be
telling the reader how something works or how something is done, but not something which
s/he must do himself/herself. The process you explain may be an event that occurred in nature
(the formation of the Solar System, for instance) or an activity that requires human effort (for
e.g. harvesting of rice).
In the writing of instructions, you must thoroughly understand the process yourself before you
explain it to the readers. Both instructions and explanation of a process are composed of steps
arranged in a natural chronological order. The example below explains how black tea is made.
Read it carefully and note how it is different from giving instructions.
Example:
Black Tea
The basic steps in making black tea from the raw leaf are withering, rolling, fermenting, and
frying (drying). First the leaves are transported from the plantation to the factory as rapidly as
possible. The leaves are spread on racks to wither. This removes about one third of the
moisture, and the leaves become soft and pliable. After this they are rolled to break the cells
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and release the juices, which are essential for the fermenting process. Then the leaves are spread
out and kept under high humidity to promote fermentation, which develops the rich flavor of
black tea. Then the leaves are dried (fried) until the moisture is removed.
(From The New Book of Knowledge, Vol. 18, Grolier Incorporated, New York).
Check Your Progress 8
Write a set of directions to a friend telling him the way from the railway station to your house.
Use a simple sketch map if necessary.
—————————————————————————————————————-
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2.3.5 Spatial Relationships
In the section above, you have looked at how paragraphs are organized according to a
chronological sequence. Paragraphs can be organized according to space relationships. Very
often you have to write about the Location of a place, how a place is to be laid out (e.g.
Proposals for landscape work) or how a set of objects are connected (e.g. description of
laboratory equipment). For this, you need to be aware of the spatial relationships involved. In
a spatial sequence, you describe an object or a process according to the physical arrangements
of its features.
There is no one right pattern for spatial development. Depending upon the subject, you may
describe its features from top to bottom, from side to side, from inside to outside, and so on.
What matters is that the way you present your subject should be suited to what you are trying
to say about the subject. For example, if you are writing about a river being polluted by
chemicals, it is better to proceed along the course of the river as it passes by various sources of
pollution. A description of the river from a single point of view on the bank showing first what
is near and then moving toward what is at a distance may not be useful at all. Such an
arrangement would limit you to one view of the river. When you write about the distant view,
the distance might prevent your giving any specific details of pollution.
Thus, a paragraph developed through a proper spatial relationship presents the point of view of
the writer and at the same time turns the reader’s attention in a certain direction. Supposing
you were to write a paragraph describing your university campus, you might organise the
description in different ways:
1. You might use some important landmark, for example, the library, and describe other
places in relation to it. The order in which you discuss each place is not as important as
its relationship to the landmark.
2. You might use an important landmark as the starting point, and move from it to the next
place, on to another, and so on, perhaps ending at the original landmark.
3. Another type of development specially might give importance to the boundaries of an
area. This would lead to a logical progression from one location to another.
4. Still another spatial development might stress the interrelationships between locations.
Then, the order of description is not necessarily important.
Generally, when you write a paragraph showing spatial relationships, your description is likely
to include the following features:
• dimension (height, width, length)
• direction (up, down, north, south)
• shape (rectangular, square)
• proportion (one-third, half)
Visual Aids
Spatial description often includes visual materials, such as a plan, a map, or a diagram. These
will aid your understanding of a text. Writers use visuals to achieve different goals. Sometimes
the purpose is to duplicate the information given in a text, so that the reader can visualize the
relations more clearly. The visual can also clarify the rather complicated spatial relations set
out in a text. Visuals are also used to supplement texts, i.e. to add further information to the
text or to emphasise certain aspects of the information given in a text.
Check Your Progress 9
Given below is a rough map of a university campus. Imagine that you are standing in front of
the Administration Building. Using the library as focus, describe the layout of the campus in
about 100 words.
A University Campus
The following expressions may help you in writing your description:
in front of beside behind on/to the left/right between
………………………………………………………………………………………………..
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2.3.6 Class Relationships
There are various ways in which people organise the world around them. You have already
read about two such ways: time and space. Another way to do it is by looking at relationships
among objects or ideas and classifying them into groups according to their similarities and
differences.
Why do you need to classify things? Without classification systematic thought would be
difficult. For example, biologists classify forms of life in order to describe them better. They
classify living things into plants and animals. They classify animals into vertebrates (having a
back-bone) and invertebrates. They classify vertebrates into mammals, birds, reptiles,
amphibians and fish. Each class has its distinct characteristics, and so, if a biologist comes
across some creature he has not met before, he has at least some way of describing it.
Of course, classification depends on the purpose of writing. What are the factors involved in
classification? The way we classify depends on what characteristics we think are important.
For example, in biology, the presence of bones in the body is an important characteristic which
differentiates animals, so we have categories of vertebrates and non-vertebrates. Generally, in
academic writing (unless new discoveries are made) classifications are based on conventions
(how others have done it), and on the purpose of writing. Of course, categories will change
with time. English Literature, for example, has traditionally been divided according to
historical periods: Medieval, Renaissance, Seventeenth century, Eighteenth century, Romantic,
Modern. However, it is possible to have an English literature syllabus in prose based on
categories of form: e.g., descriptive prose, narrative prose, expository prose and introspective
prose; or essay, short story, novel, one-act play, full length play, biography and autobiography.
When you organise your writing according to class relationships, you must keep in mind the
following points:
• Use only one principle of classification; e.g. Cars can be classified according to size,
manufacturer, price, and country of origin. Choose the principle of classification
suitable for your purpose.
27
• Be consistent. Once you have decided on a scheme of classification, stick to it
throughout your composition. Mixing different ways of classification would cause a lot
of confusion. For example, if you are classifying television programmes, do not put
‘morning shows, afternoon shows, evening shows’ with ‘detective serials, UGC
programmes and children’s programmes’.
• Make the categories as complete as possible. All individual units you are describing
should fit into one of the classes you have adopted. In some cases, you may be faced
with the prospect of an endless number of classes. For example, if you are discussing
festivals celebrated in India, you may end up with a long list of types. It may, then, be
a good idea to restrict yourself to, say, ‘Major Festivals in India.’
• Do not hesitate to acknowledge an overlap of categories in some cases. Classifications
are necessary, but they can also be arbitrary, especially in subjective writing. For
example, you may classify people as introverts and extroverts, but it is a good idea to
mention that introverts can sometimes be outgoing among close friends, and extroverts
can be shy in unfamiliar situations.
Given below is a passage which is organised in terms of classification. Read it carefully and
try to understand its arrangement.
Example:
A government’s main source of revenue is taxation. Taxes are contributions that the people of
a country pay to their government to administer the country’s affairs. There are two main types
of taxes – direct and indirect. Direct taxes are those that individuals or firms pay directly to the
government. These will include income tax (paid by the individual) and corporate tax (paid by
companies). Indirect taxes are taxes paid on goods and services, such as sales tax, entertainment
tax, etc.
Check Your Progress 10
You have come across several teachers in your life. They have all been quite different. Classify
them into any two categories that you like and write about them in 150 words.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
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2.4 TYPES OF PARAGRAPHS
In the above sections, you have learnt the elements that made a good paragraph and how to
organise a paragraph in terms of chronological sequence, space relationship and class
relationship.
Now you will read about how to develop different types of paragraphs. Paragraphs can be
developed in a number of ways, depending upon your purpose, the topic and the kind of reader
you have in mind. The different methods of paragraph development can be considered in terms
of two broad categories:
i. those which stay strictly within the scope of the topic: e.g. illustration, description,
definition, and cause and effect.
ii. techniques which involve a second topic: e.g. comparison and contrast
The method of development that you choose should be the one that will most effectively put
across the point that you want to make, the point you have stated in your topic sentence. There
are no rules about the kind of development to be adopted in any writing situation, although
some topics lend themselves more readily to certain kinds of development than they do to other
kinds. It must be realized, however, that you can combine more than one technique in
composing a paragraph.
2.4.1 Illustration
Illustration is expressed in different ways, sometimes through examples or through pictures,
figures or tables. Giving examples is one of the easiest ways of developing a topic. When you
give examples, you help the reader to understand a rather difficult and abstract generalization
which may be contained in the topic sentence. You are also able to persuade the reader that the
generalization is correct because there are examples to support it. Examples also add to the
reader’s interest .Often examples are introduced by using expressions like for example, for
instance, an example, etc.
When giving examples to support your topic sentence, keep in mind that:
• there should be enough examples to support your point
• each example should be logically related to your main idea
• each example should be developed with interesting details; (Note that the writer of the
paragraph below does not merely list the examples, but tells us in what way each of
these animals is helpless, the results of their helplessness and how they become selfsufficient.)
• the examples should represent a reasonable cross-section of the group you are dealing
with.
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Check Your Progress 11
Read the passage and identify and underline the illustrations expressed in the passage.
All warm-blooded animals are incredibly helpless at first. Young birds and young bats must be
taught to fly. Thousands of young seals and young sea lions are drowned every year. They
never learn to swim “naturally”; the mother has to take them out under her flipper and show
them how. Birds sing without instruction, but they do not sing well unless they have had an
opportunity of hearing older and more adept member of their species. Older harvest mice build
better nests than beginners. It is said that the young elephant does not seen to know at first what
his trunk for; it gets in his way and seems more of a hindrance than a help until his parents
show him what to do with it. Insects, indeed, seem to start life completely equipped with all
necessary reflexes, but even there the concept of “instinct” seems to require some modification,
for they improve their talents with practice. Young spiders, for example, “begin by making
quite primitive little webs, and only attain perfection in their art in course of time”; and older
spiders, if deprived of their spinnerets, will take to hunting.
[From Evans, B. (ed.) The Natural History of Nonsense. Alfred A. Knopf, Inc.]
2.4.2 Description
You may never have to write descriptions which are complete in themselves, but you may need
to include descriptions in other pieces of writing, e.g. personal letters, narratives, reports and
travelogues. You may like to describe people, places, objects, habits and conditions, as well as
scenes such as accidents.
Since description are concerned with detail, the larger and more precise your vocabulary, the
better your descriptive writing will be. The following items are usually included in descriptive
writing:
i. place and position; direction
ii. measurements: weight, size, volume, distance
iii. shapes and patterns
iv. colours and textures
v. materials and substances
When you write a description, keep in mind that you must:
• begin with the general appearance
• select such physical details as will support the description of general appearance you
have given in your first sentence
• describe each object by giving characteristics such as size, colour, design, weight and
material
• in some descriptions, especially of scenes and landscapes, arrange your details in a
definite order, such as near to far, high to low, left to right, etc. Some of the words used
to indicate position are:
to the right above beyond
to the left below under
in the centre opposite over
next to between on the eastern end
along the right side alongside
across beneath
to the east/west/north/south surrounding
Check Your Progress 12
Keeping in mind points given below, write a description in about 100 words of the room you
live in. Before you write a paragraph, fill in the details for yourself which may help you arrange
your points.
• Object/s
• Physical characteristics
• Location
2.4.3 Cause and Effect
Besides using illustration and description to develop the topic of your paragraph, you may in
some cases need to use the technique of cause and effect. You may, for instance, want to know
the cause of your poor grades, or of a bus accident, or the effects or consequences of taking
drugs, of deforestation, etc.
Cause
Analysing the cause can be quite a complex task. For example, a daughter’s rebelling against
her father and leaving home may have an apparent immediate cause, but there may also be a
chain of causes going back into the past. Thus, there are likely to be many causes not just one.
When you write, you can follow any of these patterns. You may discuss one or more causal
connections between events. You may trace a chain of events in which A is the cause of B,
which is the cause of C, which causes D and so on. The choice between one cause and several
causes is often not a free option. Usually your topic will determine it.
When you work with several causes or reasons, you face the problem of arranging them in a
significant order. If the reasons follow a logical pattern, i.e. if the main event is caused by A,
and A in turn by B, and B by C, the organisation is predetermined. But sometimes the reasons
or causes may be parallel, all contributing to the same result. Then, a good strategy is to begin
with the least important cause and conclude with the most important.
31
When developing a topic which is supported by reasons or causes, remember:
• to make it clear whether you are dealing with an immediate cause or an earlier cause,
a direct cause or an indirect cause
• to consider multiple causes
• to account for all the links in the sequence of causes
• to write about all the causes or reasons with details.
Example:
Hills and mountains are slowly worn away over thousands of years by the process of erosion.
Erosion takes place everywhere on Earth. There are several forces of erosion: glaciers which
carry rocks weighing thousands of tons; frost which causes small cracks on rock sides; strong
winds which wear away exposed rocks in deserts. By far the greatest cause of erosion, however,
is the action of water on rocks. Water carries chemicals dissolved in it that soften rocks. This
softening is the first stage of erosion, called weathering. Rainwater falling on hills runs into
streams and rivers and these carry the weathered rock away. Millions of years in the future,
your favourite hills will have been worn completely away by erosion.
(Adapted from Geography by Dougal Dixon, Franklin Watts Science World)
Analysis of the paragraph:
1. Topic Sentence: “Hills and mountains are slowly worn away over thousands of years
by the process of erosion.”
2. A) Causes of Erosion:
glaciers
frost
strong winds
water
B)Process of erosion by water
3. Summing up: In a million years, even your favourite hills will be worn away by
erosion.
You have just read and analysed a paragraph which lists the causes of erosion. It follows a
sequence where the less important causes are mentioned first, followed by the most important
cause.
Effects:
Effects or consequences can be handled in much the same way as you handle reasons or causes.
But keep in mind now the main idea is regarded as causing the consequences discussed in the
rest of the paragraph. The paragraph you may write deal with only a single effect or refer to
several effects. If several consequences are listed, you must be careful to distinguish between
the major and the minor ones. Read the example given below to understand how effects are
listed.
32
Example:
An earthquake strikes without warning. When it does, its power is immense. If it strikes a
modern city, the damage it causes is as great as if it has struck a primitive village. Gas main
burst, explosions are caused and fires are started. Underground railways are wrecked. Whole
buildings collapse. Dams burst. Bridges fall. Gaps and crevices appear in busy streets. If the
quake strikes at sea, huge tidal waves sweep inland. If it strikes in mountain regions, avalanches
roar down into the valleys. Consider the terrifying statistics from the past. In the year 1755:
Lisbon, capital of Portugal – the city destroyed entirely and 450 killed; 1970: Peru – 50,000
killed.
(from ‘Can We Stop Earthquakes?’ in World of Wonder)
Cause and Effect:
In the above two examples, you have read a paragraph which gives reasons to support a topic,
and a paragraph which deals with effects. Often, however, you may note that cause and effect
are more closely related, forming a chain where A gives rise to B, B to C and so on. In such a
link, B is both a consequence of A and the cause of C.
Check Your Progress 13
Read the paragraph and fill in the blanks to understand the organisation of the paragraph in
relation to cause and effect.
Without sunlight, there could be no form of life as we know it and all human’s basic needs can
be ultimately traced back to the sun. In the first place, by its light and warmth the sun directly
creates the necessary conditions for human survival. Secondly, the sun indirectly provides
people with water, for the heat of the sun causes damp air over the seas to rise and form clouds,
which cool at a high altitude and consequently fall as rain. One result of rainfall is the formation
of lakes and rivers, from which people takes their water supply and which can be used for
hydroelectric power. At the same time, rain, together with sunlight, enables plants to grow, and
plants to provide food for humans and also for animals, which are themselves another source
of food for people.
[from Anita Debska: Upgrade your English, Oxford University Press.]
Main Cause: (i) …………………………
Main Effect: Human’s (ii)…………………………………………..
Indirect effect: Rainfall
(iii): Rainfall
Effect: formation of (iv)………………… and (v) …………………
Cause: lakes and rivers
(vi)………: water and (vii)……………………………….
Cause: rain + (viii)………………………………………………
Effect: plants (ix) …………………………………………
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(x) ……………: (xi) ……………………………..
Effect: (xii) ………………….. for humans and (xiii)……………………
2.4.4 Definition
Often when you write, you need to explain what something is or means, especially if you feel
that your reader may not be familiar with it. This generally happens when you use technical
terms or when you want to give your own meaning to an ordinary word.
The simplest way to define a term is by giving a synonym or by placing the word in a general
class and then distinguishing it from others in that class. For example:
Term Class Differentiation
Widow a woman whose husband died
Surgeon a doctor who performs medical operations
Such definitions are rather formal in style and are generally found in dictionaries. Some
concepts or ideas you know that cannot be defined in such a manner, and for this purpose
extended definitions are useful. Topic sentences which relate to concepts such as ‘freedom’,
‘democracy’, etc. need the support of specific examples. In fact, both in your thinking and
writing, you often require extended definitions. This can be done by adding details like uses,
component parts, examples, being similar to something else, being different from something
else, and stating what it is not.
Sometimes a definition is used in the midst of other forms of writing, and sometimes the
definition itself becomes the focus of a piece of writing.
Example:
A map is a representation of an area of land, sea or sky. Maps have been used since the earliest
civilizations, explorers find that they are used in rather primitive societies at the present time
by people who are accustomed to traveling. For example, Arctic explorers have obtained
considerable help from maps of the coast lines showing settlements drawn by Eskimo people.
Occasionally maps show not only the roads, but pictures of other features. One of the earliest
such maps dates from about 1400 B.C. It shows not only roads, but also lakes with fish, and a
canal with crocodiles and a bridge over the canal. This is somewhat similar to the modern maps
of a state which show for each large town some feature of interest or the chief products of that
town.
C. C. Wylie
The analysis of the above paragraph is:
Definition: ‘A map is a representation of an area of land, sea or sky.’
Generalization: ‘Maps have been used…… who are accustomed to traveling.’
Example: Arctic explorers
Generalization: Occasionally maps show not only the roads, but pictures of other features.
Example: Maps of both ancient and modern times.
34
Check Your Progress 14
Use the sentences given below to write a paragraph on Mammals. The paragraph should be
arranged in the following order:
• Definition
• Generalization by differentiation
• Examples (2 examples)
• Generalization
You may make changes in the sentences by replacing nouns with pronouns and avoid
unnecessary repetitions.
i. Mammals differ from the other vertebrates in their system of reproduction.
ii. The young mammals are protected within the mother’s body.
iii. After birth the young mammals are nourished with milk secreted by the milk glands of
the mother.
iv. A mammal is a warm-blooded vertebrate that has four limbs and a hairy skin.
v. Mammals are an extremely varied group, ranging in size from the largest mammal, the
blue whale, which is 150 tons, to shrews, which weigh only a few grams.
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………………………………..
2.4.5 Comparison and Contrast
So far you have seen ways of developing paragraphs which deal with only one topic.
Sometimes a topic can be developed by showing how two things are alike or how they are
different. Do you know that comparison and contrast are common devices in writing? Mainly
because we tend to think that way! You know our decisions are often based on comparison and
contrast. For instance, comparison and contrast dominate your thought if you decide to join a
particular college or university, when you choose a career or a job, and even when you buy a
particular brand of toothpaste. In your mind, you often try to compare your teachers, your
neighbours, the cities that you have been to, the food served at different restaurants and so on.
Hence comparison and contrast are a continuous process in everyone’s lives.
Generally two items are compared and contrasted for three basic purposes:
i. To point out distinctions in order to give information about the two things.
ii. To clarify the unfamiliar by comparing it with the familiar
iii. To show the superiority of one thing over another, for example comparison between
two cars
There are two ways of arranging information when comparing or contrasting things. One is to
write down all the main points about one of the things to be compared or contrasted and then
to take all the main points about the other.
Person/thing 1
Person/thing 2
The other way is to take each point in turn and to compare the two things in respect of each
point like this:
Person/thing 1 Person/thing 2
Point 1 Point 1
Point 2 Point 2
Point 3 Point 3
Example:
We live on the planet Earth, a ball of rock 12,750 km in diameter. Like all planets, the Earth
rotates on its axis and orbits the sun. But the earth is not alone. It has a companion on its travel
– the moon – which orbits the Earth once a month. But the two worlds are very different. The
Moon is a dead planet. It has no volcanoes or geological activity, it is airless, waterless and
lifeless. The Earth, on the other hand, is lush and fertile. It supports millions of living things –
plants, insects, birds, animals and human beings. It has fascinating erupting volcanoes. Since
the moon has no atmosphere to protect it, its surface is heated to 105˚C during its day, and
cools to -155˚C at night. In contrast, the Earth is covered by an atmosphere in which we can
breathe, and which also keeps the temperature quite constant.
The above paragraph you have just read is organized by talking about the earth and contrasting
it with the moon. Moreover, the contrast is indicated with the signal words such as In contrast,
but, on the other hand.
Check Your Progress 15
Write a paragraph of your own contrasting the Arctic and the Antarctic regions. The first
sentence and some points describing the two regions are given below. The expressions of
contrast listed here may also help you in developing the paragraph.
First sentence: The northern and southern Polar Regions are different in many ways.
Northern (Arctic) region Southern (Antarctic) region
ice-covered sea – surrounded by land huge continent – surrounded by ocean
varied climate climate less varied; cold throughout the
year
more rainfall less rainfall
Point 1
Point 2
Point 3
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much plant life empty desert
exploited for trade no trade at all
Expressions of Contrast
Is different from, can be distinguished from, but, yet, while, although, whereas, despite the fact
that, on the other hand.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………
2.5 LET US SUM UP
In this unit, you have been introduced to the elements that include the organisation of a good
paragraph: the topic sentence, the development of the topic, coherence and the use of cohesion
devices. Also, the organisation of paragraphs is also discussed in terms of chronological
sequence, space relationship and class relationship. In chronological sequence you have learnt
to write paragraphs based on natural and unexpected time and these include biographical
writing, narratives, instructions and descriptions of processes. When you write a paragraph
based on space relations mentioned, you use both visual and non-visual cues and finally when
you write texts based on class relationships, you have to classify items to make it more
meaningful.
Further, different techniques to develop paragraphs are discussed; illustration, description,
cause and effect, definition, comparison and contrast. These techniques can be used to write
paragraphs on different topics.
2.6 ANSWERS
Check Your Progress 1: Suggested answers:
Topic sentence at the beginning:
The vast majority of people, wherever they live and whatever their occupation, come in contact
with animals in one way or another and have to deal with them.
Topic of the paragraph: Sharing our world with animals
37
Check Your Progress 2: Suggested answers:
Nothing could be more important to the development of an infant Indian Langur than its
relationship with its mother.
The correct position: at the beginning of the paragraph
Check Your Progress 3: Suggested answer
Analysis of the paragraph:
a. Topic statement: Two main circumstances govern the relationship of living things in
the sea
b. Elaboration of the topic sentence: the lavish fruitfulness of marine life forms, and the
utter ruthlessness with which the larger creatures eat the smaller ones.
c. Illustration: The example of codfish.
d. Summing Up: Only one sea creature in about tem million survives.
Check Your Progress 4: Suggested answer:
e, b, c, a, d
Check Your Progress 5:
Suggested answer:
When you write your paragraph, omit the following points:
• cockroach is a clean insect
• some species are large, others are small
• usually black or brown in colour
Here is a specimen paragraph. Compare it with yours:
The cockroach is one of the oldest creatures, older than even the dinosaurs. It has survived
because it can live anywhere and in any climate, from the coldest to the warmest. It is found in
cities as well as forests. Moreover, it can eat anything – flower buds, paint, soap, wood, and
even shoe polish. When there is nothing available, it can live without food and water for
months. Predatory animals keep away from it because its scent glands give out a dirty smell.
Everything seems to favour the cockroach.
Check Your Progress 6:
Suggested answer:
(iv), (iii), (vi), (i), (v), (ii)
Check Your Progress 7:
Suggested answer:
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My School Days
When I think of my school days, the year that stands out most vividly in my mind is when I
was in Class 8. Miss D’Souza was our English teacher. She was a motherly looking lady of
uncertain age, but with a beautiful, expressive voice. She loved Shakespeare, and made ‘Julius
Caesar’, our text, come alive to us. About the years before that, I can hardly remember
anything. I therefore, imagine I must have had a fairly uneventful time. The senior years passed
quickly. My satisfaction was that at the end of it all I got a good grade. Now, I am an English
teacher, and I try my best to make Shakespeare come alive to my students.
Check Your Progress 8
Suggested answer:
The way to my house
There is a bus terminus next to the railway station. Catch a 421 or 425 bus from there. Get off
at the Defence Colony bus stop. The conductor will help you. From the bus stop walk past the
General Store (Kwality Store), and take the first turning on the left. Walk along this road. Cross
the first road you come to (School Road), and you will come to Surya Street. No. 79,is the last
house on the right. (The map given below may help you).
Θ No. 79
Surya
Street
School Road
Defence Colony
ΘBus stop
General Store
Check Your Progress 9:
Suggested answer:
The library is located at the centre of the University Campus. It is flanked by the School of Life
Sciences on the left and the School of Humanities on the right. The School of Humanities is
quite large. In front of the library is the Administration Building and behind it is the University
Health Centre. To the left of the Health Centre is the Canteen and to the right is the School of
Medicine.
Check Your Progress 10
Suggested answer:
Throughout my education, I met various teachers who taught me from Kindergarten to College.
There are several teachers who left an impression on me and whom I still remember with a lot
of affection and appreciation. There are two teachers whom I especially remember. One of
them was my 8th class teacher. She was full of compassion. She helped me not only in my
studies but when I needed somebody to listen to me in my adolescent years. The second teacher
whom I liked very much was like my mentor. She provided me guidance about my career and
how I should pursue my future goals. She was my English teacher in college.
Check your progress11
Suggested answer
All warm-blooded animals are incredibly helpless at first. Young birds and young bats must be
taught to fly. Thousands of young seals and young sea lions are drowned every year. They
never learn to swim “naturally”; the mother has to take them out under her flipper and show
them how. Birds sing without instruction, but they do not sing well unless they have had an
opportunity of hearing older and more adept member of their species. Older harvest mice build
better nests than beginners. It is said that the young elephant does not seem to know at first
what his trunk is for; it gets in his way and seems more of a hindrance than a help until his
parents show him what to do with it. Insects, indeed, seem to start life completely equipped
with all necessary reflexes, but even there the concept of “instinct” seems to require some
modification, for they improve their talents with practice. Young spiders, for example, “begin
by making quite primitive little webs, and only attain perfection in their art in course of time”;
and older spiders, if deprived of their spinnerets, will take to hunting.
Check your progress 12
Suggested answer
My room I live in is medium-sized, about 15 feet by 10 feet. The walls are cream-coloured and
the door and the window are painted white. There are beds in the centre of the room. I use one,
and the other is used by my sister whenever she is in Delhi. On one side there are two
cupboards, one made of steel and the other wooden. The steel cupboard serves as a wardrobe,
while the wooden cupboard has books in it. On the other side there is a writing desk, where I
do all my reading and writing. The window has a cooler fitted in it, which makes the room
dark. I have to keep the door open all the time to get light and fresh air.
40
Check Your Progress 13
Suggested answer
Main cause: (i) the sun
Main Effect: Human’s (ii) survival
Indirect effect: Rainfall
(iii) Cause: Rainfall
Effect: Formation of (iv) lakes and (v) rivers
Cause: lakes and rivers
(vi) Effect: water and (vii) hydroelectric power
Cause: rain + (viii) sunlight
Effect: plants (ix) grow
(x) Cause: (xi) plants
Effect: (xii) food for humans and (xiii) animals
Check Your Progress 14
Suggested answer
(iv), (i), (ii), (iii), (v)
Check Your Progress 15
Suggested answer
The northern and the southern polar regions are different in many ways. The most important
difference is in terms of the distribution of land and water. The northern Arctic region is an icecovered sea, almost completely surrounded by land. The Antarctica, on the other hand, is a
huge continent which is surrounded by a great ocean. Because of this, other differences occur.
The Arctic has a varied climate, while the Antarctic climate varies little. It rains more in the
Arctic than in the Antarctic. Although the Arctic has plant life, the Antarctic is an empty desert.
Whereas the Arctic has been exploited economically for centuries, trade has never really
touched Antarctica.
(Adapted from K. Johnson: Communicate in Writing)
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UNIT 3: WRITING A COMPOSITION
Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Types of Composition
3.2.1 Expository Composition
3.2.2 Argumentative Composition
3.2.3 Narrative Composition
3.2.4 Descriptive Composition
3.3 Steps to do Before Writing Your Composition
3.3.1 Decide on your Topic
3.3.2 Limit your Topic
3.3.3 Gather and Arrange the Information Collected
3.3.4 Construct your outline
3.4 Factors to Keep in Mind before Writing Your Composition
3.4.1 The Beginning
3.4.2 The Body
3.4.3 The Ending
3.5 Revision
3.6 Let Us Sum Up
3.7 Answers
3.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through the unit, you should be able to:
• understand the nature and structure of composition writing
• identify different types of composition
• be aware of the different steps in writing a composition
3.1 INTRODUCTION
A composition is the act of putting together parts, according to a plan, to form a whole. A
composition can be a poem, a piece of music, as culture, or a painting. A composition
organically grows from the first paragraph you have written. You have studied paragraph
writing in Unit 2. You will find that in a paragraph you write about a particular topic but what
you want to convey in a composition is more comprehensive and requires several paragraphs.
A paragraph is also a part of a composition.
Therefore, in this unit you will be made aware about the different types of compositions,
organizing a composition and tips to write a composition.
3.2 TYPES OF COMPOSITION
We have already mentioned what is a composition and before we move any further, we shall
tell you briefly about the four broad types of composition. When you had looked at these types,
you might have noticed that each of these compositions has a different style of writing and
organisation pattern even though the structure is same for all the types of compositions.
Let us look at the examples to make you understand the differences more clearly.
Example
Topic 1. ‘Do you think that the homemaker leads a more pleasant life than a career woman?’
Topic 2. ‘My most embarrassing moment’.
When you have to write on the topics 1 and 2, you will find that you cannot possibly write
about them in the same way. The first topic suggests a discussion and the second is a very
personal topic which suggests the narration about the moment. Thus, it is clear to you that each
composition is different. It also differs from each other because different people would write
on the same topic for different readers and for different reasons.
Let us look at another topic to understand how on one topic you may write differently
depending on what you want to convey to the readers.
Example
Topic: ‘Growing up to be a Dog’.
On this topic, if you are asked to write, you may write the story of your pet dog or you may
write facts about a puppy’s growth to adulthood.
Thus, when you write about the story of your pet, you are narrating a story, and it is known as
narrative composition. If you write facts about puppy’s growth, it is called an expository
composition, if you write a description of your pet, it is known as descriptive composition or
if you argue how a dog is the best pet among other animals, then it is known as argumentative
composition.
Also, keep in mind when you choose a topic for composition, it is important for you to decide
which of the four types of composition you wish to write. But no composition has to be based
on only one type. You will find that a composition will be organised according to the type it
belongs to, but it will also use techniques from other types of composition as well.
3.2.1 Expository Composition
What do you think is an Expository Composition? In simple terms, it means writing to explain,
inform, clarify or persuade the reader. The paragraphs are organised in a coherent manner to
help the readers understand the topic and provide factual information. It is usually written in a
direct manner where you state the theme first and then your views.
43
Example
‘Nothing could be more important to the development of the infant Indian langur than its
relationship with its mother.’
In the above sentence,
The concept of growth from childhood to adulthood of the Indian langur is mentioned, which
is stated in the first line, and then information on the importance of its relationship with its
mother is stated.
3.2.2 Argumentative Composition
In this composition, you state reasons, deduce inductions, evaluate evidence or infer
information to support or disapprove your opinion about a topic given. To develop the
argument you use evidence, state it logically or coherently to persuade the reader.
Example
Even though it is in public interest for people to be well immunized, healthy individuals are
unwilling to pay much for vaccines.
To write an argumentative composition about this, you will have to state whether you support
this statement or not, why do you support it or not, and the reasons for supporting or not
supporting it with evidence. Here you will argue about your opinion and try to persuade the
reader of your opinion.
3.2.3 Narrative Composition
In a narrative composition, you usually write an account of an actual or imagined event or
incident. In this composition you include chronology (that is, the order in which the events take
place), description, and the writer’s point of view. It includes verbs which are very precise and
vivid, specific details to help the reader to read the story. A short story is an example of
narrative composition.
3.2.4 Descriptive Composition
In a descriptive composition, you wish to present a picture of an object, scene, person or
situation through the use of words. You will affect the reader by appealing to his/her senses
and imagination.
Example
Before long, you are taken to your table in the well-decorated dining room. The room is quite
large; the tables are round, and the chairs are made of dark wood. You can hear soft music
which is rather soothing. This adds to the atmosphere and once a week they have someone
playing the piano.
44
The description above is a brief review of a restaurant or a café and probably written for a
newspaper.
Check Your Progress 1
Read the beginnings of the excerpts given below. Identify the types of compositions in all the
excerpts
given below
(a)
One day when I was traveling in a
car, it suddenly started raining and I
could not see what was in front of
me. Suddenly I heard a loud noise
and my car was in the air.
(b)
It is very difficult to find houses on rent
in Delhi in a good location. This situation
has arisen because people from different
parts of India choose Delhi to pursue
higher education or look for employment.
(c)
Mobile phones should be allowed in the
schools due to various reasons. Firstly, it
helps to contact the children in case of
emergency. Secondly, it helps to get
information from apps and tools which
would help them to fare better in studies.
(d)
The chair was huge and comfortable
to sit. It was in the middle of the hall
and can be seen from the entrance of
the house. It had an orange cushion
and blue footstool to keep your feet
up.
3.3 STEPS TO DO BEFORE WRITING YOUR COMPOSITION
It has been mentioned earlier, a composition is an organized piece of writing with an
introduction, body and ending. We shall now discuss with you the steps to do before you write
the composition. These steps will help you to organise the materials which you have collected
to write the composition, it will organise your thoughts and plan to write it.
To begin with, you must know who you are writing for. Keep in mind the interests of the
reader and his/her level of ability. Here are some questions you can ask yourself:
• For whom I am writing, and why?
• How can my writing appeal to him/her?
• How much does s/he already know about the subject I am writing on?
The next step is to collect enough information on your topic to write a number of paragraphs
on the topic. You must know enough to define, elaborate and illustrate your theme.
(a)
One day when I was traveling in a
car, it suddenly started raining and I
could not see what was in front of
me. Suddenly I heard a loud noise
and my car was in the air.
(b)
It is very difficult to find houses on rent
in Delhi in a good location. This situation
has arisen because people from different
parts of India choose Delhi to pursue
higher education or look for employment.
(c)
Mobile phones should be allowed in the
schools due to various reasons. Firstly, it
helps to contact the children in case of
emergency. Secondly, it helps to get
information from apps and tools which
would help them to fare better in studies.
(d)
The chair was huge and comfortable
to sit. It was in the middle of the hall
and can be seen from the entrance of
the house. It had an orange cushion
and blue footstool to keep your feet
up.
45
3.3.1 Decide on your Topic
How do you choose your topic? Either it is given to you or you have to select one from the
choices you have been given. If you have to choose a topic on your own, then there are some
suggestions from where you can choose or decide your topic:
i. Reading newspapers and magazines and watching television programmes will keep
you informed of daily happenings, conflicts, problems etc.
ii. Talking to friends, colleagues as well as teachers can raise interesting questions and
make you aware of different viewpoints.
iii. Hobbies, sports, art and dramatics can also help you to decide on a topic.
iv. When you have to write academic assignments and you have to decide the topic, then
libraries, archives and the Internet will help you choose the topic and collect the
information.
3.3.2 Limit your Topic
When you choose a topic, it should not be too general, i.e. covering a broad area of experience.
Such a composition will be difficult to manage – it may have too many general statements
which may not be supported by examples and illustrations. Therefore, the next possible action
is to limit your topic – to reduce the scope of your composition.
You may wish to write about ‘Surviving in the times of Covid 19, ‘Kindness to animals’ or
‘Drought conditions in India’. These topics cover very broad areas of experience and
knowledge. You will have to select certain aspects of the topic for your composition. Unless
you do so, your writing will not be well-organised but a collection of paragraphs on very
different aspects of the same subjects.
Once the topic is limited, it should be stated very clearly in the opening paragraph. Then you
can develop the main idea in the body of the composition.
Example:
Imagine you have decided to write a composition on ‘Animals’, but this is a very broad topic,
it does not indicate which aspect of animals you want to cover, so narrow it down to ‘wild life’
but that is to obroad an area to write a composition, so it can be narrowed it down to ‘The big
cats’. This topic is good but it will be difficult to cover all the big cats.
Therefore, you can write the composition from another angle, i.e. writing about a particular
animal: ‘India’s experience in saving the tiger’, or specifically on the less well known ‘The
white tiger’, then you can write a nice composition with details, anecdotes, examples and
illustrations.
3.3.3 Gather and Arrange the Information Collected
When you plan to write a composition, you will explore your sources of information to gather
facts and arrange them according to some order. Once you have all the information in your
mind, jot down all the points: facts, ideas, opinions, feelings and illustrations on paper and then
arrange these in some order. This is necessary because:
• not all the ideas you have jotted down will be directly related to your theme; some will
have to be discarded
• you may also find that much of what you have jotted down is not worth writing about
• much of the information jotted down is commonly known and will only make the
composition dull
• there may be repetition of ideas
• you may discover that you do not have enough details to write a worthwhile
composition
Please keep in mind that the details and facts make a composition interesting. Also, besides all
the sources available, you should be aware that your own thinking and self-exploration can be
one of the richest resources available to write the composition.
After you have identified the sources, there are some tips to identify the ideas you are going to
include in your composition:
i. To encourage your thinking, underline all important words in your topic: e.g. ‘Lizards
are friendly creatures.’ Often students just miss out a significant word in the topic they
have chosen. In such cases the composition is usually out of focus.
ii. Having analysed the topic, jot down random thoughts as they occur to you.
iii. All ideas, suggestions or facts that have something in common should be placed in one
group.
iv. The ideas could be arranged according to some logical order. We list here some of the
more important logical orders. You have already read about them in the previous unit.
a. spatial sequence
b. chronological sequence
c. cause and effect
d. information in decreasing order of importance
e. information in increasing order of importance
By now you will have a fairly good idea about your topic – how you wish to begin and where
you would like your composition to end. You might even have a topic sentence written out, but
do not start writing yet. You have to make your outline first.
Example: Grouping of ideas
Imagine you are asked to write on a topic, “Smoking should be banned in public places”
The ideas on this topic can be grouped as follows:
Group 1 – How it is not good for health
i. Smoking is dangerous to health
ii. Scientific studies – reasons for not allowing to smoke in public places
Group 2 – Problems for people who do not smoke
47
i. Unfair to people who do not smoke
ii. Studies show that passive smokers are at high risk
Group 3 – Safety issues and Government measures
i. Problems due to throwing of cigarettes in public places
ii. Safety issues and concerns
iii. Steps to be taken to avoid such situations
iv. Government rules to be implemented strictly
v. Suggestions and recommendations
You will notice about the points which are mentioned here – there is a general flow of ideas
from one group to the other, these are linked by arguments of how smoking is dangerous in
public places and its effects on non-smokers.
Grouping helps you to see the relationship between ideas. However, it is not necessary to cover
all the items of a group in one paragraph, or to write a paragraph on each item. Therefore, it is
better for you to include those points which are important to state your view point very clearly.
3.3.4 Construct your outline
Now you are at the final step of the pre-writing stage – constructing an outline.
An outline is like a roadmap which helps you to stay on the right path to reach your destination
without any waste of time or effort.
• If you have prepared a good outline, you don’t have to fend for ideas
• You will not stray away from the topic
• It will help you to state your points briefly without repetition
A sample outline
Introduction:
Humans are responsible for progressive destruction of environment; they must change their
attitude and work harder to save their environment
Body
1. Humans responsible for environmental damage – politically, industrially and individually
a) Government does not plan use of resources; this causes waste and pollution
b) Privately owned industry causes waste and pollution as it aims at large profits with
small investments
c) Through needs, carelessness and laziness, individuals cause damage to the
environment.
2. Government, industry and individuals are now beginning to realize that they should
prevent further damage
a) In collaboration with international agencies, through enactment of laws,
government is trying to save the environment
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b) Industrialists must accept responsibility for recycling waste, and using safety
measures to prevent pollution.
c) Individuals and groups are working in research laboratories to discover the causes
of pollution and the means to save the environment.
3. What is being done is not enough
a) Government must enforce its policies and laws strictly.
b) Industrialists must widen their goals to include social and national interests in
building up pollution-free industrial environment.
c) Media should educate the public about the concern for the environment.
Conclusion:
Humans must no longer look upon themselves as the master of their environment. They are
absolutely dependent on the environment for their survival.
Check your progress 2
After going through the sample given above, write an outline for the topic ‘Social media has
both advantages and disadvantages’.
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3.4 FACTORS TO KEEP IN MIND BEFORE WRITING YOUR
COMPOSITION
To understand how a composition is written you will need to study its major components: the
beginning, the body and the conclusion. However, before we come to the actual composition
itself, let’s give you a few guidelines for choosing a proper title for your composition.
• The title should be clear enough, short and to the point, so that the reader is sure of the
subject and the ideas it reflects
• It should arouse interest and make a person want to read the composition
3.4.1 The Beginning
The beginning of the composition is also referred to as the introduction, the introductory
paragraph, or the opening paragraph. It is not necessarily limited to one paragraph; it can also
be one sentence or two or three sentences depending on the topic and the length of the
composition.
The opening paragraph should state the subject or the main idea of the composition. When you
write the opening paragraph, you can write it in a number of ways, depending on the purpose
of communication. Does it seek to explain, argue, narrate or describe? For instance, if you are
writing an expository composition, you will state the topic immediately and exactly. This
requires a business-like approach, and you should come straight to the point.
Example:
‘Nothing could be more important to the development of an infant Indian langur than its
relationship with its mother.’
In this opening sentence, even without the title, you can make a correct guess about the subject
of the composition, and how it is going to develop.
Not only is the main idea clear, but the topic is also indicated in the opening paragraph. The
beginning also gives an idea of how the rest of the composition will be organized.
Let us look at another introduction:
‘Science has obviously multiplied the power of the war-makers; the weapons of today can kill
more people more secretly and more unpleasantly than those of the past.’
Here too you know how the composition will proceed.
You need to keep in mind the following points when you write your introduction:
• The opening should arouse the interest and curiosity of the reader.
• It should take you straight to the point of the topic you are writing about instead of
beginning with broad general statements.
Example
‘Many people are involved in the building and setting up of a new office: architects,
bankers, bricklayers, carpenters, electricians, and so on.’
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• Begin your composition with a short, factual sentence which will make the reader think
about it and want to read more.
Example
‘ Some teenagers live in a world of their own.’
• Amuse the reader by a funny remark, an anecdote, or a simile, metaphor, analogy or a
quotation.
Example
‘America has a thousand lights and weathers and we walk the streets, we walk the
streets forever, we walk the streets of life alone!’ (metaphor)
‘My mother was always throwing out new ideas; some of them were rather wild; others
were so simple and sensible that they very nearly amounted to genius; but the
application of them was sometimes rather autocratic.’ (witty)
Check Your Progress 3
What do you think should be the correct beginning for the composition of the title given below?
Choose from the options given below the title.
How to make Chapatis
(a) The chapatis are round in shape and made from wheat flour.
(b) To make chapatis, first we need to understand that the round shape of the chapati is due
to the technique used by the person who rolls it.
(c) In India, you will find different varieties of chapatis. Some are made from flour or
chickpea flour or white flour.
(d) We know chapatis by different names roti, phulka in India and roshi in Maldives. It is
an essential part of the daily intake in most of the Indian houses in North India. It is
usually prepared with water and wheat flour.
Now you have read how to write the beginning of any composition .Keep in mind you have
looked at merely one part of the beginning, which is how to catch the attention of the reader.
This is known as lead; the other two parts are bridge and the thesis statement. The bridge
connects the lead to the topic and it consists of connecting sentences. The last part is the thesis
statement which tells your reader the main points that you will mention in the essay. Look at
this example:
We know Chapatis by different names roti, phulka in India and roshi in Maldives. It is an
essential part of daily intake in most of the Indian houses in North India [LEAD]. It is usually
prepared with water and wheat flour. In India, you will find different varieties of chapatis.
Some are made from flour or chickpea flour or white flour. It is very popular all over India but
the major problem faced by many young Indians is how to make chapati round and keep it soft
[BRIDGE].This can be easily solved with the help of tips and techniques used by experienced
women who make 50 chapatis a day in an Indian household[THESIS STATEMENT].
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Check Your Progress 4
Write the introduction with the help of the main points mentioned below:
a) How to reduce air pollution: reduce traffic congestion, encourage different types of
public transportation, industries to be outside cities, encourage walking for short
distances
b) Benefits of exercise: increase in stamina, build confidence and keep healthy
c) Social media: advantages and disadvantages
3.4.2 The Body
Your opening paragraph has stated the topic, limited it, and in doing so, has aroused the interest
and curiosity of the reader. Now you have to tackle the body of the composition. Here your
concern should be to develop the topic and to concentrate on the use of language to express
your thoughts clearly. Only then will the reader be able to follow the ideas in your composition.
At the pre-writing stage, you have read how to group your ideas and write an outline. What
you further need to know is how to use language to make your ideas lucid. You can do it in
two ways:
a) To use signposts: phrases or words which enable the reader to follow the writer’s
thinking.
But the question will be how do you recognise a signpost?
• Topic sentences of paragraphs become signposts through a composition.
• Other signposts are words or phrases which tell the reader about the sequence or design
of the composition – what you have done, are doing, will do next or later, will not do
at all. The expressions firstly, in the first place, secondly, further, for example, act as
signposts.
• Paragraphing and indentation of quotations also act as signposts to the reader.
Example
“Mobile phones should be allowed in the schools due to various reasons. Firstly, it
helps to contact the children in case of emergency. Secondly, it helps to get information
from apps and tools which would help them to fare better in studies.”
The first phrase: due to various reasons is a signpost. It indicates the feeling of the
writer about the subject. S/he is giving reasons for mobiles to be used in the school. The
phrase ‘firstly’ in the second sentence, and the word ‘secondly’ in the third sentence,
are both signposts to the reader telling him/her the reasons for allowing the use of
mobile phones.
b) To use inter-paragraph transitions: words or phrases which tie the beginning of a new
paragraph to the one that goes before it. For example
Repetition: At the beginning of a new paragraph pick up a key word or phrase
occurring at the end of the preceding paragraph.
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Example
….But the element which is constant and common in all of them is change.
Change is the master key.’
‘…..The bringing to an end to the life say, a spastic child, by the deliberate refusal of
the full esthetical care, seems morally indefensible.’
Even if the idea of bringing someone’s life to an end is based on compassion…’
Question and answer transition: The question comes at the end of one paragraph and
the answer is the first sentence of the next one.
Example
‘…..Why cannot we be honest and say whatever comes into our heads?’
The answer is that we are not good enough.’
The opening sentence summarises, in a subordinate phrase or clause, the idea of the
previous paragraph; the main clause which follows the topic of the new paragraph. If
and while clauses are generally used in such cases.
Example
‘If we were to measure freedom by standards of nutrition, education and self-government, we
might rank the United States and certain nations of Western Europe very high.’
Pronouns such as it, this, that, these, those, can be used to refer to a key noun of the
last sentence of the previous paragraph.
At four weeks, tripping over itself, it ventures forth and discovers the world—-or at
least that part of it within a safe three or four feet of its mother.
As its excursions into the world grow bolder, the maturing infant Indian langur begins
to encounter age-mates.
Words and phrases showing logical relationships can be used to link paragraphs. Some
of these expressions are:
Therefore, however, but, consequently, thus, and so, even so, on the other hand, for
instance
Example:
The sight of the dog, the faithful sentry of the previous night, being finished of in that
brutal manner was somehow more horrifying than many things he had seen in the war.
But, as a soldier he could see the reasons why the dog had been killed.
3.4.3 The Ending
You have developed the topic through your composition, and you have mentioned all you want
to write and you feel now that the composition should end. So, you should end it properly with
a concluding paragraph.
As the beginning, so is the ending important and the reader tends to remember it. You should
be aware that whereas the beginning of a composition introduces and excites, the ending should
tie it up, round it off, or summarize the main idea.
Example:
“Present-day insects have spread to every habitable area on the face of the globe.”
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This is the opening sentence of a composition on insects which is developed through successive
paragraphs.
When you will read the ending of this composition, you will see that it is done by summarizing
the discussion and stressing the theme of the composition:
“Wherever there is sufficient moisture, warmth and food to support life, there the insects are
well-established. Both in the number of species and in number of individuals, the insects exceed
any other visible form of life on the earth.”
• In a descriptive or narrative composition, the end comes naturally at the end of the
description or narrative.
Example:
This is the beginning of an article on the travelling theatre of Maharashtra:
“They are always on the move but they are not nomads…. They are the Tamashawalas, the
traditional performers who bring a few moments of undiluted happiness…”
The ending of this composition is suggested through new beginnings.
“Performance over, they return to their worn-out tents and shoddy existence. With the next
sunrise they are once again on the move, dishing out dreams in the form of entertainment.”
Here are some other ways in which composition can end, depending on your purpose and in
what way you wish to influence your reader.
• An ending can suggest a remedy or a course of action.
• An ending can offer a value judgment.
• An ending can include thinking ahead based on the discussion in the composition.
When you write a concluding paragraph, do not start the concluding paragraphs with phrases
such as: now I will conclude with, now I end up saying. They reduce the force of the idea
presented in the sentence that follows.
Also do not introduce a new idea in your ending paragraph. The ending you have written
should strengthen the ideas you have presented in your composition.
Check Your Progress 5
Given below are extracts from different passages marked 1, 2 and 3. Each of them has sections,
one of which is an ending. Choose the ending.
1 a) Words are the tools of writers, the tools they use to give form and shape to the medium
in which they work – ideas.
b) Without the proper word the idea is never expressed. In the beginning is the word.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
2 a) Even in her deep anguish the rag woman’s tear-stained face beamed. The goat was dead;
a white heap still lying on the mud floor.
b) From the neighbouring stalls in the Tuesday haat of the village she purchased by a
barter of rags the two objects that were to make the motif of her life for months to come:
three pumpkin seeds….and a month-old goat youngling.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………..
3 a) The Study Centres of Indira Gandhi National Open University are part of the detailed
programme of the University….
b) The face-to-face contact in the shape of tutorials at the University Study Centres is
different from what takes place in conventional colleges.
c) In other words, Study Centres and Regional Centres will act as the means through which
the university will take the education to the doorsteps of the student.
3.5 REVISION
As a writer you will benefit greatly if you pause frequently to reread your drafts. Rereading
often leads to further discovery – you may add an example, choose different vocabulary, add
or subtract ideas ,etc. You will often find that rereading leads to substantial rethinking and
revising and this certainly improves your composition. Of course, errors of grammar,
punctuation and spelling also need to be checked. It is also a good idea to have someone else
read your draft if they are willing. They will give you another perspective that you may be
missing.
Finally, learn to reflect on your writing. Ask yourself questions such as ‘Is my essay
interesting? ‘Will it be clear to my reader?’ ,‘Is the paragraphing adequate? What examples can
I add to make my point clearer? And so on.
3.6 LET US SUM UP
These are some of the points which we have touched upon in this unit.
• You should choose a topic about which you know a great deal.
• You should know who your reader is; that is, you should be aware of his/her level of
understanding, interests and needs.
• When choosing a topic, you must know your sources of information.
• To do justice to your topic you must limit it in such a way as to make sure your composition
reads smoothly and will cover the theme fully.
• It is only after limiting the topic that you start collecting and ordering your data. The
grouping of ideas should follow a logical sequence.
• The outline is the most important part of the pre-writing stage.
• The beginning of the composition tells the reader about the subject-matter. The writer
should make the opening interesting by plunging straight into the theme if possible.
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• The beginning of the composition includes beginning known as the lead, bridge and the
thesis statement.
• The body of the composition develops the main ideas. Some of the techniques of
development are illustration, description, definition and elaboration. Different types of
composition require different techniques.
• The ending or conclusion of a composition should not come suddenly. There are several
ways in which you can give a satisfactory ending to your composition.
• Revise your first draft to check for errors.
3.7 ANSWERS
Check Your Progress1
(a), the narration (b) expository (c) argumentative (d) descriptive
Check Your Progress 2
Suggestions:
You can start with the advantages and then disadvantages about the topic; make sure the
introduction, advantages, disadvantages are in separate paragraphs. The ending should reflect
your opinion.
Check Your Progress 3
d-c-a-b
Check Your Progress 4
Write the answer in your own words.
Check Your Progress 5
1 b) This last sentence summarises the idea stated in 1 a) about the importance of words to
a writer.
2 a) Here the ending of the narrative is obvious. The goat dies.
3 c) “In other words…….” is a phrase which introduces a repetition of the ideas in the
earlier sections.
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UNIT 4 DIFFERENT TYPES OF WRITING
Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Different Types of Writing
4.2.1 Filling of Forms
4.2.2 Information Transfer
4.2.3 Diaries
4.2.4 Dialogues
4.2.5 Letters
4.2.6 Emails
4.2.7 Reports
4.3 Forms of Writing
4.4 Let Us Sum Up
4.5 Suggested Readings
4.6 Answers
4.0 OBJECTIVES
This unit will:
• familiarize you with the different types of writing
• help you to distinguish salient features of each type of writing
• give you practice for tasks in different types of writing
• make you aware of different genres/styles and forms in writing
4.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit we have looked at the process of writing in general, how the act of writing
takes place in the writers’ mind. We undertake different types of writing in our daily life and
each type of writing generally follows the same process that we have learnt earlier, but they are
different in structure, content and use of language. This means, letter writing is not the same as
essay writing; writing a paragraph by looking at a visual is not the same as writing a paragraph
by looking at a flow chart or a map. These types are distinct in their own ways. The old dictum
“the more you write the better you will write” is something which you should follow. Let us
together in this unit look into the various forms of writing activity so that you become a better
writer.
4.2 DIFFERENT TYPES OF WRITING
Let us undertake the study of some of the forms of writing, like, reading a map, understanding
a visual, keeping diaries, writing conversations/dialogues, letters, emails, reports etc. Together,
they constitute the traditional and the non-traditional forms of writing. However, we will not
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go into details of paragraph and essay writing as these have been extensively dealt with in
earlier units.
4.2.1 Filling of Forms
This is a common activity which each one of us has to do in our daily life, whether it is to seek
admission in school, college, reserving/cancelling a berth on a train, or booking/cancelling a
ticket on a flight, opening or closing a bank account, depositing / transferring money, etc. For
numerous purposes one has to fill forms. If the form is duly filled, it is likely to get accepted.
Therefore filling in forms is a very important activity.
What are its salient features?
To fill a form one does not need to produce a long piece of text running into pages. You require
factual information, which at the most is two – three words. Or, if it is an address then it may
be about two phrases/clauses at the most. The important point to note is that you must be
accurate. The most common of forms that you need to fill these days are online forms. We will
give you practice in filling an online form by providing you the following link.
https://ignouadmission.samarth.edu.in/index.php/registration/user/register
Link for admission in IGNOU ODL Programmes
4.2.2 Information Transfer
This is another type of a writing activity in which a learner is required to write a paragraph
based on reading and interpreting a graph, a chart, table or giving directions based on a map.
This transfer of non-verbal skills to verbal form (writing a paragraph or report) develops
composing or writing skills. This is an important study skill, which would help you develop
analytical faculties and will be useful to you in the study of subjects like Mathematics, Science,
Commerce, etc. In fact, form filling is also another type of information transfer.
Example: Read the following description of Rucha’s school and transfer the information into a
graphic form.
I study in Tejas Vidyalaya. In front of my school there is a park named Atmajyoti Park and
behind it is a huge playground where the Garba festival is held. To the right of my school there
is a huge supermarket, Big Bazaar, and next to it is the Centre Square mall. On the left of the
school is a big building which houses the famous Meridian hospital. he graphic prepared will
look something like the picture drawn below.
Now let us show you how to write a more difficult but an interesting piece which would
be useful to you in your academic life.
Types of Vision Problems
Most Common Adult Vision Problems Most Common Childhood Vision Problems
Blurred vision (called refractive errors) Blurred vision (called refractive errors)
Age-related macular degeneration Crossed eyes (called strabismus)
Glaucoma Lazy eye
Cataract
Diabetic retinopathy
Blurred vision (refractive errors)
Myopia Hyperopia Presbyopia Astigmatism
(Near sightedness) (Farsightedness) (Reading after 40) (blurred vision)
The figure presents the types of vision problems at two levels: types of visual problems and
blurred vision.
Tejas Vidyalaya
Meridian
Hospital
Big Bazaar
Garba
Playground
Centre
Square
Mall
Atmajyotipark
Atmajyoti Park
can see clearly up
close
but blurry in the distance
can see clearly in
the distance
but blurry up close
can’t read fine
print
(age-related)
shape
of
cornea
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We first study the first level of the diagram: The title reads: types of vision problems. This
indicates that vision problems can be of several kinds and we expect that they will be named.
At the first level we find that the two main kinds are: Common Adult Problems and Common
Child Problems.
Below ‘Common Adult Problems’ are listed five kinds of vision problem and under ‘Common
Child Problems’ are listed three.
We next see that the first problem listed under each is ‘blurred vision’ or refractive errors’.
This is taken up at the next level of classification. Four kinds are listed. Each kind is then briefly
described in the boxes below the heads.
Now let us go through the steps of writing this information as running text:
We first state the topic:
Vision problems are of two major types:
We then name them:
Those that are common among adults and those that are common among children.
This can also be stated as:
There are two major types of vision problems: those that are common among adults and those
that are common among children.
We then take up the list under adult problems:
Adult vision problems can be of five different kinds. These include, blurred vision, also called
refractive errors, age-related macular degeneration, glaucoma, cataract and diabetic
retinopathy.
Next we take up the list under child problems:
Vision problems among children can be of three different kinds. These are, blurred vision also
called refractive errors, crossed eyes or strabismus and amblyopic, commonly known as lazy
eye.
The next step deals with the common problem listed under both heads, namely, blurred vision
or refractive errors. These are classified as four different types.
Blurred vision or refractive errors may be classified as follows: myopia or near-sightedness,
hyperopia or farsightedness, presbyopia or reading problem that appears after 40 years of age
and astigmatism or defect in the shape of the cornea.
We then describe each category.
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Myopia or nearsightedness is the ability to see things that are at close range but inability to see
things at a distance.
Hyperopia or farsightedness, as the name implies, is the reverse of myopia, that is, the ability
to see things at a distance but not being able to see things at close range.
Presbyopia is a reading-related problem that appears after the age of 40. This involves inability
in reading small print at close range.
Astigmatism is another condition that causes blurred vision. This involves a defect in the shape
of the cornea.
We can now put the entire text together:
Types of vision problems
There are two major types of vision problems: those that are common among adults, and those
that are common among children.
Adult vision problems can be of five different kinds. These include blurred vision, also called
refractive errors, age related macular degeneration, glaucoma, cataract and diabetic
retinopathy.
Vision problems among children can be of three different kinds. These are blurred vision,
also called refractive errors, crossed eyes or strabismus, and amblyopia, commonly known as
lazy eye.
Blurred vision or refractive errors, may be further classified as follows: myopia or nearsightedness, hyperopia or farsightedness, presbyopia or reading problem that appears after 40
years of age, and astigmatism or defect in the shape of the cornea.
Myopia or near sightedness is the ability to see things to see things that are at a close range,
but inability to see things that are at a distance.
Hyperopia or farsightedness, is the reverse of myopia, that is the ability to see things that are
at a distance, but not being able to see things that are at close range.
Presbyopia is a reading related problem that appears after the age of 40. This involves the
inability in reading small print at close range.
Astigmatism is another condition that causes blurred vision. This involves a defect in the shape
of the cornea.
You will notice that the words in bold in the text are used in performing the function of
classifying. They are the discourse markers that indicate what is to follow.
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Check Your Progress 1
1. Study the following table and write a paragraph on the stages in the growth of a lion.
Stage Growth
1 At birth Blind
2 Six days eyes open
3 4-5 weeks play like kittens
4 Three months learn to hunt
5 Age of two begin to breed
6 5 years old fully grown
2 The flow chart given below depicts the process of making bread. Write the process in
about 100-150 words in the form of a paragraph.
4.2.3 Diaries
A diary is a personal record and hence diary entries are usually individualistic and personal.
We do not need to write complete sentences. Some words/phrases in the form of notes are
sufficient clues of what the writer wants to say. Thoughts and feelings are often expressed in
a disconnected manner as they flash through the mind. More often than not, abbreviations are
used and hence in a diary entry one does not find complete sentences. At times ambiguity or
even disconnected thought process is observed. Let us set up a task and further clarify this
form of writing activity.
Task 1
This is a page from Shiela’s diary. Rewrite this diary entry in the form of a continuous
paragraph.
Woke up at 7 – mom not at home – granny says gone to the hospital – worried – dad comes
home at 8 – leaves me at school – I want to go to hospital, dad says ‘no’ – evening dad picks
me up from school – all smiles – we go straight to hospital – how nice to see mom – oh! baby
Bread is
baked
Keep dough
warm and damp
Add Yeast
Gives off gas and
expands
Mix water
and flour
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brother, so soft, cuddly like a doll – I’ll call him JoJo – I am akka now – today happiest day of
my life.
Let us take a look at some more famous diary entries which many of you would have already
read – The diary of Anne Frank. She was a thirteen year old Jewish girl who wrote about her
experiences of hiding from Hitler’s gestapo. Kitty is the name she gives to the imaginary person
she writes to.
Read about Anne Frank from the Internet.
Task 2
Wednesday, 13 January 1943
Terrible things are happening outside. At any time of night and day, poor helpless people are
being dragged out of their homes. They’re allowed to take only a rucksack and a little cash
with them, and even then, they’re robbed of these possessions on the way. Families are torn
apart; men, women and children are separated. Children come home from school to find that
their parents have disappeared. Women return from shopping to find their houses sealed, their
families gone. The Christians in Holland are also living in fear because their sons are being
sent to Germany. Everyone is scared. Every night hundreds of planes pass over Holland on
their way to German cities, to sow their bombs on German soil. Every hour hundreds, or maybe
even thousands, of people are being killed in Russia and Africa. No one can keep out of the
conflict, the entire world is at war, and even though the Allies are doing better, the end is
nowhere in sight.
I could spend hours telling you about the suffering the war has brought, but I’d only make
myself more miserable. All we can do is wait, as calmly as possible, for it to end.
Saturday, 30 January 1943
Dearest Kitty,
I’m seething with rage, yet I can’t show it. I’d like to scream, stamp my foot, give Mother a
good shaking, cry and I don’t know what else because of the nasty words, mocking looks and
accusations that she hurls at me day after day, piercing me like arrows from a tightly strung
bow, which are nearly impossible to pull from my body. I’d like to scream at Mother, Margot,
the van Daans, Dussel and Father too: ‘Leave me alone, let me have at least one night when I
don’t cry myself to sleep with my eyes burning and my head pounding. Let me get away, away
from everything, away from this world!’ But I can’t do that. I can’t let them see my doubts, or
the wound they’ve inflicted on me. I couldn’t bear their sympathy or their good-humoured
derision. It would only make me want to scream even more.
Everyone think I’m showing off when I talk, ridiculous when I’m silent, insolent when I
answer, cunning when I have a good idea, lazy when I’m tired, selfish when I eat one bit more
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than I should, stupid, cowardly, calculating, etc., etc. All day long I hear nothing but what an
exasperating child I am, and although I laugh it off and pretend not to mind, I do mind. I wish
I could ask God to give me another personality, one that doesn’t antagonize everyone.
But that’s impossible. I’m stuck with the character I was born with, and yet I’m sure I’m not a
bad person. I do my best to please everyone, more than they’d ever suspect in a million years.
When I’m upstairs, I try to laugh it off because I don’t want them to see my troubles.
Task 3
The principal of your college maintains a diary of his important engagements every day. Can
you complete his itinerary/ time-table on the Annual day celebrations of your college? Then
write a paragraph on her engagements for the day.
Annual Day Celebrations
Time Activity undertaken
10.a.m Meeting with all teachers
11a.m. Inspecting all preparations undertaken
12.noon Receiving the Chief Guest
1 p.m.
2.p.m.- 4p.m.
5 p.m.
Check your progress 2
1. Write a diary of a day in your life. What insights have you gained about yourself?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
4.2.4 Dialogues
Dialogues fall under the category of spoken English. Nowadays writing dialogues also forms
a testing item in the English question papers. Due to large classrooms, direct testing of spoken
English is not practical; this language item therefore forms a part of the Composition
classroom. This is a highly creative activity and if undertaken in the classroom from the
primary level, can help create a sense of the spoken form of the language. What are the
characteristics of a natural dialogue? A natural dialogue/conversation
• need not be in full sentences always
• involves use of simple vocabulary
• allows use of informal forms like can’t, don’t, am, won’t, etc.
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• involves use of colloquial expressions like oops, wow! dad, tummy, etc.
The dialogues could also be formal in nature, for example, a conversation between a student
and a teacher or a boss and an employee or it could be informal for example, a casual
conversation between a mother and a son, or between two friends or cousins etc. The formality
or the informality of the dialogue depends upon the relationship between the speaker and the
listener. A dialogue involves a minimum of two people, the speaker and the listener; it could
involve three to four speakers as well.
Example 1
Look at the following conversation between a mother and son:
Daughter: Mom, our class is going on an excursion to Kausali.
Mother: When?
Son: In May, during the summer holidays.
Mother: For how many days? Any teachers accompanying?
Son: For ten days. Yes. Two teachers are coming with us.
Mother: Charges?
Son: Not much – only Rs 10,000 per head. Mom, can I go?
Mother: That’s a lot, but I think, you should go. You’ll learn to be independent.
Son: Thanks ma. You’re so cool!
Example 2
Look at the following conversation between a teacher and the Principal:
Teacher: May I come in Sir? Good morning Sir.
Principal: Yes, come in. Good Morning.
Teacher: I’ve come to request you to grant me leave for a few days.
Principal: For how many days? Where do you have to go?
Teacher: For a week sir. I’ve to go to Delhi to attend a wedding in the family.
Principal: What about your classes? Internal tests are in fifteen days, have you completed
the course?
Teacher: Yes sir, I have.
Principal: Ok, then that’s fine. Enjoy the wedding.
Teacher: Thank you sir.
If you analyze both the conversations, you will see that the function of both the conversations
was to seek permission, the daughter seeking permission to go on an excursion and the teacher
seeking permission to go to Delhi. A tone of informality is seen in the first dialogue while it is
formal in the second. The formality or the informality of the language used depends upon the
relationship between the speaker and the listener. The differences between both conversations
are tabulated below:
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Differences between conversation 1 and conversation 2
Conversation 1 Conversation 2
Relationship between
speaker and listener
Informal, cordial, intimate Formal, hierarchical,
distant
Words used Coming, going (Words of
everyday use)
Mom, so cool
Sir, permission, grant,
request (words denoting
hierarchy, distance)
May (Use of modals)
Sentence structure Direct- Can I go?
You should.
Indirect – grant me leave
When, charges
Thanks ma
(Use of single words
loaded with meaning
understood by the listener)
Where do you have to go?
For how many days?
Thank you sir.
(Use of full sentences)
Beginning of conversation Direct beginning Begins with seeking
permission to come in.
Offers greetings
Add any other differences you can observe in both conversations.
4.2.5 Letters
All of us write letters for various reasons. We may write letters to our friends, relatives or we
may write letters to people whom we do not know, yet with whom we want to communicate.
Today, in the technological age, even sending emails is a type of letter writing. The purpose
of a letter is to inform, invite, enquire, complain, congratulate, express sympathy, order goods,
etc. Every letter has a writer, a reader and a situation. Depending upon the purpose, writing
letters can be divided into two: formal and informal. Formal letters are written for business
purposes, for example complaint letters, application for a job, ordering products, enquiring
prices of products, interview call letters, appointment letters, seeking permission etc. These
letters are usually written to people whom we do not know on a personal level or whom we
haven’t met at all or have met for business reasons or those people who hold a higher
designation than us. For example, a teacher / student writing to a principal/teacher of a college
would write a formal letter and not an informal one. Informal letters include all
correspondence between friends, members of the family, relatives etc. Emails are considered
both formal as well as informal mode of communication because they are written for business
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as well as personal purposes. While we will primarily concentrate on emails, we shall also give
you the structure of letters in case you need to write them.
Structure of Letters
Whether you write formal or informal letters there are certain aspects which are common to
both. The structure of formal and informal letters is given below: Tabulate the differences
between the two of them:
Structure of a Formal Letter
Structure of Informal Letter
Not only are formal and informal letters structurally different, the language of both types is
also different. Consider the following examples and analyze the language used in both of them.
You can take cues for analyzing the letters from the dialogue section of this unit.
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Example 1
William O’Connor
7 November, 20XX
Dear Rajesh,
Thanks for your letter and the wonderful photographs you sent with it. Looking at them I was
constantly reminded of the wonderful time we spent together at Panchmarhi. It was a trek that
I’ll never forget in my life. Remembering the thick vegetation, the dense forests, and the
beautiful silver streak from the high mountains makes me wonder at the beauty of nature. I
also wish to see more of such India not tarnished by the mechanized world. Thanks immensely
for including me in your group and helping me see such a beautiful place.
Next time you happen to arrange such a trip with friends, do count me in.
Yours affectionately,
William
Example 2
Rakshak Electric
45, M.G.Road
Kolkata – 440 010
November 7, 20XX
Diamond Cables
25, Anne Besant Road
Worli, Mumbai
Subject: Prices of Cable Wires-Enquiry
Reference: ……………………………….
Dear Sir/Madam,
We have heard from reliable sources that the cables you manufacture are of a very high quality.
Hardly any complaints have been recorded since its use in many buildings.
We have secured a contract for electrifying a commercial complex in the Surendra nagar area
of Kolkata. We wish to use the cables manufactured by you for our project for which we
require 100,000ft of cable wires. We request you to quote your most competitive prices so that
we could place an order with you. Do also let us know your terms, conditions and the discount
you can offer on the product.
Hoping to hear from you soon.
Yours Truly,
Rajesh Potdar
Materials Procurement Manager
Rakshak Electric
4.2.6 Emails
In this age of globalization, the fastest tool of written communication is email. Electronic mail,
often abbreviated as e-mail or email, is a method of exchanging digital messages. It has
numerous advantages. It is fast, cheap, simple, efficient, and environment friendly because it
saves tons of paper. It is also versatile because through email one can send pictures, power
points or other files. Another advantage of an email is that it is easy to prioritize and filter.
Unlike regular modes of written communication, one does not need to read, review and scan
all mails, and lastly, if the receiver’s email ID is correct, rarely does it go astray.
On the other hand, one of the biggest disadvantages of Email, like any written tool of
communication is, it can become impersonal and can thus be misunderstood. Hence, it becomes
necessary for the writer on Email to know its format, structure, etiquette and language.
An email message consists of two components, the message header, and the message body,
which means content. In the message header, along with the receiver’s name there are names
of people to whom copies of the message are sent. They are called carbon copy (cc:) and blind
carbon copy (bcc:) fields. If there is an attachment to the mail, an icon representing the
attachment can be seen. The addresses in the ‘cc:’ field are of those people who need to know
about the subject but are not required to act on the contents. The ‘bcc:’ field is useful where
carefulness is required. People in this field are hidden away from other recipients in the ‘To’,
‘cc:’ fields.
In emails, the subject line plays a vital role in prioritizing mails. Hence, one should take care
in phrasing the subject line. The subject line should be brief and should aptly provide a clue to
the contents of the message. For messages that are urgent, one can start the subject with the
word ‘Urgent’ or if the Email is an invitation or a request or a reply, one can start with the
words ‘Inv’, ‘Req’ or a ‘Re’ respectively.
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The structure of an Email is also known as the body of the message. It may be very similar to
that of an informal/formal letter. The essential parts of a message body are:
1. Greetings: Many people do not use a greeting/salutation in an email. In informal letters,
it is advisable to use words like ‘Hi!’, ‘Hello’, ‘Dear’ followed by the receiver’s first
name. ‘Dear’ can also be used in formal letters.
2. Body: This is the main body of the letter. It includes the message that the sender wants
to tell the receiver. It is often developed into paragraphs or short points.
3. Closing: There are three sub-parts to the closing of an email, namely, pre-closing,
closing and identification. The pre-closing and the closing must correspond with the
degree of intimacy with the receiver. Identification is necessary because at times, the
sender’s Email ID doesn’t reveal his/her name and the receiver might mistake the mail
for spam or junk mail. The following table shows how salutation should correspond
with pre-closing and closing.
Salutation Pre-closing Closing Identification
Hi Lekha See you soon
Hear from you soon
Tons of love
Best wishes,
All the best,
Cheers
Sender’s name
Hello Alvin
Dear Nazma
I look forward to
Looking forward to
hearing from you
Regards
Kind regards
Sender’s name
4. Signature: Default signatures should be used only in official correspondence. They are
not required in informal mails.
Language used in an Email
Language use in an email may greatly vary according to different contexts, the subject matter
and even the senders. In formal contexts like job applications, language may be more formal
and similar to that of formal letters. In informal contexts like chatting between friends,
language use may tend to be less formal and more intimate.
1. Sentence structure – wide-ranging structures
2. Formality and accuracy – Though not always necessary in informal code of written
communication, formal grammar and spelling should be followed.
3. Punctuation – Punctuation is sometimes used in an individual and unconventional way in
informal contexts, but rules of punctuation strictly apply in formal situations.
4. Style – Shorthand, acronyms, abbreviations, colloquialisms, etc. are quite common.
The following letter is an example of an informal invitation through email:
Hi Everyone,
My suggestion is, let’s have a pot-luck dinner and bring snacks and soft drinks……Please
RSVP as soon as you can so that I can estimate how many people will be here and what
everyone will bring.
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Eagerly waiting for your response……
Amish
Etiquette in Email
In any mode of communication, certain code of conduct has to be maintained. Since Email
has now emerged as a popular and powerful tool for communication, one must observe
etiquette while using it. The following are some pointers for Informal Emails:
1. Summarize your message in the subject line.
2. Keep your message precise and focused.
3. Avoid using all capital letters (Upper cases): Use of capital letters is an equivalent of
shouting.
4. Do not write anything you would not like to say in public. These mails can be
forwarded easily and hence may put you in an embarrassing situation.
5. You can use a smiley or emoticons to make sure that your statement or comment is not
misunderstood, only in informal mails.
6. Do not send or even respond to chain letters.
7. Abbreviation usage is quite widespread with e-mail. To save keystrokes, users have
traded clarity for confusion. Some of the more common abbreviations are listed in the
table below. Please do not use these in formal mails.
Abbreviation Means this
LOL Laugh out loud
BYW By the Way
FYI For your information
TTYL Talk to you later
TC Take care
TYT Take your time
For more abbreviations- go to:
http://www.serveronfire.com/Internet_Guide/abbreviations.htm
8. Avoid ‘flaming’. Flaming occurs when one sends messages with angry or aggressive
content.
Formal emails more closely follow the style of formal letters.
You have read about handwritten letters, (formal/informal) and also about emails. Given below
is a table. Fill the blanks by writing the differences between the two. Add more rows to
complete the table.
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Difference between handwritten letters and emails
1. They have a personal touch.
2. You cannot admire the sender’s
handwriting.
3. They take some time to reach.
4.They can be sent to many at a time.
Check Your Progress 3
1. Identify at least five (5) occasions when you have to write letters (formal and informal).
—————————————————————————————————————-
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2. Suresh, who is a school boy, wrote the following letter to his Principal. But his Principal
was very angry when he read it. According to you why did the Principal become angry?
Can you help Suresh correct it?
My dear principal,
Hope you are fine. I am not feeling very fine. Sorry, I can’t come to school today.
Please excuse me. Can I take leave for today.
Yours affectionately,
Suresh
3. Read this letter from Asha to her mother. Asha is describing her life in the hostel. But
the paragraphs are jumbled up. Put them in the right order so that it becomes a cohesive
whole.
At night we have chapatis for dinner and glass of milk too. We study up to 10pm. Then the
lights have to be switched off. You know how difficult it is for me. I always used to watch late
night movies at home, isn’t it?
In the hostel four of us share a room. Each has a bed, a table, a desk and an almirah. My
roommates are Sharmila from Kolkata, Sapna from Delhi and Nandita from Kerala. I’m
learning some Bengali and Malayalam. We sit and chat for a long time in the nights. We always
do most of the things together.
Dear Mom, hope things are fine with you. You had asked me about the hostel. I’m now going
to bore you to death with my description.
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Can you believe mom that your daughter now gets up at 5 in the morning? Yes, staying in a
hostel has changed me a lot. No bed tea/coffee, only mad rush for the bathrooms. If we don’t
reach the dining hall by 8 a.m. no breakfast either! Don’t think that your daughter is suffering.
Mummy, I must tell you about my friends.
4. Choose the correct option:
i. When writing an email message, paragraphs should be:
a. long
b. indented
c. short
d. informal
ii. When writing a Subject Line:
a. use something general, such as “Greetings” or “Hello.”
b. say, “If you don’t respond, I’ll be annoyed.”
c. use several sentences
d. be specific and brief
iii. The three sub-parts to the closing of an Email are:
a. Subject, Body, Greeting
b. Pre-closing, Closing, Identification
c. Structure, Punctuation, Body
d. Body, Complimentary close, Signature
iv. ‘Flaming’ is:
a. sending sad messages
b. sending messages to old friends
c. sending angry messages
d. receiving wrong messages
4. It was your birthday yesterday and you did not receive birthday wishes from your younger
sister. Using the following format, draft an email to your younger sister with a carbon copy
to your brother and a blind copy to your mother and father expressing your anger and
unhappiness.
4.2.7 Reports
A report usually presents information in a logical, orderly and concise manner. The purpose of
the report is to inform the reader about things that they do not know hence all details need to
be included. But at the same time unnecessary details need to be avoided. This ensures
completeness of the report.
The report should be accurate. Hence any false information should be avoided.
There should be clarity in the report. It should be clear enough for the reader to understand
and take action if necessary. The language should be simple; jargon and technical language
should be avoided.
The salient features of a report can thus be summarized as under:
A report is:
• brief, accurate, complete and clear
• usually written in third person
• includes only relevant details – there are no digressions
• avoids emotional overtones
• ideas are logically arranged
• language is simple, jargon is avoided
Check Your Progress 4
1. Imagine that you are the editor of the college newsletter, “IGNOU Times”. You have to
report on the Independence Day celebrations. Use the following hints and write a report.
15 August 20XX, 7.00a.m. – all students in white – assembled near flag post – Chief guest –
Police Commissioner to hoist at 7.30 a.m. – flag hoisted on time – guard of honour presented
by NCC cadets – address by chief guest – topic – Duties of Youngsters towards India – vote
of thanks proposed by the Principal – Tea for all students and chief guest – dispersed
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………
2. The student’s union met to discuss the farewell party for seniors. The following items
were discussed at the meeting
• date and venue
• budget
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• items on the menu
• gift for seniors
• speeches
• entertainment
Using the above points write a report of the meeting to be presented to the Principal.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
3. Collect at least 5 reports from newspapers, which you could use in your class. Think of three
different ways in which you can use newspaper reports.
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………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
4.3 FORMS OF WRITING
The earlier section deals with different types of writing that we are required to undertake in our
daily life. The author can choose from the different forms to express his intent. The selection
would depend upon what’s/he wants to convey. For example,
• Why is the writing task being undertaken?
• Is it for entertaining the readers?
• Is it for informing readers?
• Is it for presenting one’s point of view?
• Is it for persuading the readers to accept one’s points of view?
Answers to the above questions influences the type of choices the writer makes of the form
s/he wants to adopt. It means that the writer has to choose the right manner to express her/his
intent. For example, the writer may have used the narrative form when expository perhaps
would have been more effective on a given topic, or, the writer may have in a casual manner
expressed her/his feelings when perhaps a lyrical or a poetic way would have given a lot of
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pleasure to the readers. Thus, the writer has to choose the appropriate form of writing so as to
decide on the different genres: drama, poetry, prose, fiction, short story etc., depending upon
the intent and readers ’needs and expectations.
Each form has a unique structure and it is important to know the distinctions between them.
Let us look at some of them. We have already covered some of these in the earlier units. While
this might appear repetitive but the additional details will help you to further revise and
practice.
Descriptive Writing
Descriptive writing involves description of people, places, objects, or events using appropriate
details. An effective description usually contains sufficient and varied elaboration of details
which are usually sensory and selected to describe what the writer sees, hears, smells, touches,
and tastes. These paint a picture in the minds of the readers so that they become an integral part
of the visual process. Word pictures created makes the writing more interesting, easier to
understand and contributes and supports the topic the writer is describing. Use of these details
also paint pictures of feelings and emotions.
How can you write an effective description? Some cues are given below which could
be useful to you.
• Establish the intent, that is, how does one want the reader to feel?
• Choose 2 or 3 details to help create the atmosphere one wishes them to
experience.
• Show! Don’t Tell! this can be done by replacing linking verbs (is, are, were) with
action verbs.
• Using figurative language such as analogies, similes, metaphors to make real, but
powerful comparisons.
• Choosing precise language, noting sensory details.
• Using specific adjectives, nouns and strong action words to give life to the picture
instead of general adjectives, nouns and passive verbs.
• Descriptive writing is well organized based on the foundation of chronology, (time),
space (location) and prioritization.
Example of descriptive writing
In the following paragraph, observe how the writer moves clearly from a description of the
head of the clown (in sentences two, three, and four), to the body (sentences five, six, seven,
and eight), to the unicycle underneath (sentence nine). Notice also how the concluding sentence
helps to tie the paragraph together by emphasizing the personal value of this gift.
A Friendly Clown
On one corner of my dresser sits a smiling toy clown on a tiny unicycle – a gift I
received last Christmas from a close friend. The clown’s short yellow hair, made of
yarn, covers its ears but is parted above the eyes. The blue eyes are outlined in black
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with thin, dark lashes flowing from the brows. It has cherry-red cheeks, nose, and lips,
and its broad grin disappears into the wide, white ruffle around its neck. The clown
wears a fluffy, two-tone nylon costume. The left side of the outfit is light blue, and the
right side is red. The two colors merge in a dark line that runs down the center of the
small outfit. Surrounding its ankles and disguising its long black shoes are big pink
bows. The white spokes on the wheels of the unicycle gather in the center and expand
to the black tire so that the wheel somewhat resembles the inner half of a grapefruit.
The clown and unicycle together stand about a foot high. As a cherished gift from my
good friend Tran, this colorful figure greets me with a smile every time I enter my room.
Source: grammar.about.com/od/developing paragraphs/a/samdescpors.htm
Expository Writing
Exposition refers to an act of explaining something or making clear. The aim of the writer in
expository writing is not primarily to narrate or describe; it is mainly to explain – facts, ideas
or beliefs. The writer has to assume that the reader has no prior knowledge of the topic being
described. Hence, every little detail has to be written. This type of writing is distinct in terms
of purpose, design and function of language.
Techniques which can be used in writing expository texts are:
• explanation of a process
• use of examples
• reasons in support of a statement
• comparison and contrast
• classification
• restatement
• definition
• analogy
• cause and effect
• analysis
Expository writing involves different organizational patterns some of which are graphically
presented below. Look at an example of a text followed by the graphic.
Description
The Olympic symbol consists of five interlocking rings. The rings represent the five continents
– Africa, Asia, Europe, North America and South America from where athletes compete in the
various events. The rings are coloured, red, black, yellow, blue and green. At least one of these
colours is found in the flag of the countries whose athletes come to participate in the games.
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The modern Olympics is unlike the ancient Olympic games. Individual events are different.
While there were no swimming races in the ancient games, there were chariot races. No female
athletes competed in the games while all athletes were males. Of course, the ancient and the
modern Olympics are also alike in many ways. Some events like the javelin and discus throw
are the same. Today, people are of the opinion that cheating, professionalism and nationalism
in modern games are a disgrace to the Olympic tradition. However, in the times of the ancient
Greeks cheating, professionalism and nationalism was also rampant. Human beings evidently
haven’t changed.
Cause and Effect
There are several reasons why so many people attend the Olympic Games or watch them on
television. One reason is tradition. The name Olympics and the torch and flame remind people
of the ancient games. People can escape the ordinariness of daily life by attending or watching
the Olympics. They like to identify with someone else’s individual sacrifice and
accomplishment. National pride is another reason an athlete’s or a team’s hard-earned victory
becomes the nation’s victory. There are national medal counts and people keep track of how
many medals their country’s athletes have won.
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Problem and Solution
One problem with the modern Olympics is that it has become very big and expensive to operate.
The city or country that hosts the games often loses a lot of money. Stadiums, pools and playing
fields must be built for the athletic events; housing is needed for the athletes who come from
all over the world. And all of these facilities are used for only 2 weeks! In 1984, Los Angeles
solved these problems by charging a fee for companies who wanted to be the official sponsors
of the games. Companies like McDonald’s paid a lot of money to be a part of the Olympics.
Many buildings that were already built in the Los Angeles area were also used. The Coliseum,
where the 1932 games were held was used again and many colleges and universities in the area
became playing and living sites.
One can thus see that expository writing along with its different organizational patterns are
being used in our daily life. Usually any article from a book, magazine or newspaper is of an
expository nature where the objective of the author is to inform the reader of the topic being
written. You too have to submit assignments, which usually are of an expository nature. Let
us now turn to Narrative writing.
Narrative writing
Narrative writing is an account of sequence of events, usually in a chronological order. It can
take various forms including personal essays, biographical sketches and autobiographies in
addition to short stories and plays. It can be used by highly imaginative scientists, scholars and
historians. Many historians narrate historical events, bringing the past to the present for the
benefit of the readers.
Narrative writing helps us to ‘loosen up’ and write naturally and creatively. But ‘telling’ a story
is different from ‘writing’ a story. If the narrator forgets certain points, s/he can always add
them later on, but in writing, the writer has to keep in mind the characters, theme, role played
by each character, details of expressions, tone of voice etc. Most importantly, the flow of the
story should be maintained while keeping the readers in mind. A completely developed
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narrative fiction has a central theme that is introduced at the beginning, followed by its
development, an eventful middle and a memorable end.
Adopting this form of writing, the author needs to bring to life his subject by using
• ‘Wh’ questions – who, what, where, when, why and how, which would make the basic
story structure realistic and exciting.
• concrete vivid language to show readers what is happening.
• visual elements to involve readers.
Persuasive Writing
This type of writing is all about trying to convince the reader to change their opinions and sway
them with logic, moral appeals, and emotional language. The author places an argument before
the readers and then tries to convince them. It also involves convincing the readers to perform
an action. Effective persuasion in the written form is accomplished through a combination of
clearly expressed position that is supported by various examples and evidence. The elements
that can build an effective persuasive paragraph are the following:
• establishing facts – to support an argument
• clarifying relevant values for the readers
• sequencing the facts and values
• forming and stating conclusions
• persuading readers that conclusions are based upon facts and shared values
• having the confidence to persuade
Strategies to write persuasive writing are:
1. Using repetition
2. Using metaphors, analogies, similes to relate writing to something that the reader
can relate to, so that acceptance is immediate
3. Using a story or anecdote to make readers understand your point of view
4. Addressing objections
5. Quoting famous people
6. Using rhetorical questions
7. Using predictions or questions in conclusions so that readers’ thinking is activated
We would like to end this section by writing about argumentative writing as it bears similarity
to persuasive writing. But there are distinct differences between the two, which are tabulated
below:
Persuasive Argumentative
1 Objective –
• to ‘win’ the reader over to
the author’s side
Objective –
• present a valid argument and
allow the reader to adopt a
position either to agree or
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disagree with the writer’s
position
• accept it as another point of view
which merits further thought and
discussion
2 Only one side of the issue is
presented/debated
Both side of the issue is presented – one
to substantiate one’s own position and the
other to refute the opposing argument
3 In organization, basic essay format
is followed
Statement is made, followed by claims
and counter claims
Use of first person is not advisable, but use of statistics, expert quotations and other evidence
can be used for supporting or for rebuttal.
The author thus has a repertoire of forms to choose from to express her/his intent. However,
the point that definitely needs mentioning is that these forms are not ‘water tight compartments’
in which there is no space for other forms to mingle and integrate. Boundaries of these forms
are porous, and a writer can use an eclectic approach to convey thoughts and ideas. For
example, a writer may choose to write a narrative in which description of certain aspects
highlights the entire sequence of events. The narrative mode thus forms an outline in which
description becomes an integral component, each retaining its distinctiveness and identity.
4.4 LET US SUM UP
In this Unit you have been acquainted with different types of writing, their salient
characteristics and formats. We have also made you aware of the different genres and forms of
writing. Some of these we had already touched upon in earlier units. However we have added
additional information in this Unit. We hope you will be able to use these insights to be better
writers. Most of your student life and later life at the work place is dependent on your writing
skills, so please take these units seriously and improve your writing skill.
4.5 SUGGESTED READINGS
Achar, D. et al. (2011)English for Academic Purposes Book 1, Choice Based Credit System
Undergraduate Program, Foundation Course in English: Semester 1. Ahmedabad: Gujarat
GranthNirman Board.
Freeman, S. (1977). Written Communication in English, Madras: Orient Longman.
Narayanswami, V.R., (1979) Strengthen Your Writing (3rd Ed. 2005). Hyderabad: Orient
Longman Private Limited.
Wright, A. (1989). Pictures for Language Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
4.6 ANSWERS
Check Your Progress 1 Write the answers in your own words.
Check Your Progress 2 Write the answers in your own words.
Check Your Progress 3
1. Requesting permission to conduct a cultural fest, letter apologizing for misconduct,
letter inviting chief guest for an event, thank you letters, and so on.
2. Dear Sir,
I wish to inform you that I will be unable to attend school for a few days as I am not
well. I have a fever and the doctor says that it is a flu and has advised rest.
Please accept my leave of absence.
Yours Sincerely,
Suresh
Class 8A
3. Dear mom……….
Can you …………
In the hostel……..
At night……….
4. i-c, ii-d, iii-b, iv-c.
Block-3 Note Taking
BLOCK
3
NOTE TAKING
UNIT 1
Learning Study Skills 04
UNIT 2
Techniques of Note Taking – Main and Subordinate Points 22
UNIT 3
Techniques of Note Taking: Use of Tables and Diagrams 38
UNIT 4
Making Effective Summaries 55
BLOCK 3 NOTE TAKING
Introduction:
Block 3 also has 4 units. The focus of Unit 1 Learning Study Skills is on different types of
strategies by which we are able to gather, store and retrieve material/texts whenever required,
especially for assignments, tests and examinations. Unit 2 Techniques of Note- taking – Main
and Subordinate Points helps you with note-taking and making skills. How to distinguish
main points from subordinate information, the shortening devices that you should use and why
they are necessary – these are some of the issues we take up for discussion here. We also discuss
the efficacy of the Cornell method of note-taking/ making. In the next unit Techniques of Note
Taking – Use of Tables and Diagrams we suggest ways of organising your notes, such as
using tables, tree diagrams, flow chats, pie charts and so on. Finally, in unit 4 Making Effective
Summaries, we take you through the summarizing process. We make you aware of the
condensation techniques which involve identifying the topic sentence, the key ideas, the main
claim and supporting arguments, etc. We also show you ways of summarizing a text.
As you will notice, the units are strewn with activities. Do practise them, they will certainly
help you, not only in your student life, but even later at the workplace, when you need to take
notes at meetings and discussions. Perhaps these skills will come in handy when you make
minutes of meetings or write reports and proposals.
Hope you enjoyed the course and found it useful.
Acknowledgement
The material we have used is purely for educational purposes. Every effort has been made to
trace the copyright holders of material used in this book. Should any infringement have
occurred, the publishers and editors apologise, and will be pleased to make the necessary
corrections in future editions of this book. Unit 1 of this course has been adapted from Block
4 of the course CTE 05 of CTE programme of IGNOU, while Units 2 and 3 have been adapted
from the FEG 02 course of BDP programme of IGNOU. Unit 4 has been taken from Block 5
of the BEGE 103 course of IGNOU.
4
UNIT 1: LEARNING STUDY SKILLS
Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 What are Study Skills?
1.2.1 Gathering Skills
1.2.2 Reference Skills
1.2.3 Skimming and Scanning
1.3 Storage Skills
1.3.1 Retrieval Skills
1.4 Why do Students Need Training in Study Skills?
1.5 Let Us Sum Up
1.6 Suggested Reading
1.7 Answers
1.0 OBJECTIVES
This unit aims to introduce you to the concept of study skills. At the end of this unit, you will
know: What study skills are, the various types of study skills, and why is it necessary to
develop your study skills.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Today language is viewed as a ‘skill’ rather than as ‘knowledge’. What does this mean? If you
want to acquire knowledge about any subject; you read books or listen to lectures. For example,
if you want to know about the Moghul rule in India, you read history books, or you listen to
talks/lectures on this topic. Thus, you acquire more knowledge. On the other hand, if you want
to learn singing, you don’t read books on singing, you practice singing until you attain
competence. The same is true of dancing, painting, cycling or swimming. These are known as
‘skills’. Skills are acquired through practice. Language is also regarded as a skill by experts.
The more you speak, the more fluent you become. The more you read, the faster you can read.
There are, as you know, four linguistic skills: listening, speaking, reading and writing. These
four skills have to be mastered by any user of the language. If you want to study anything
through a language, you have to master what are known as study skills. In the next section we
shall make an attempt to define study skills and also look at the various types of study skills.
1.2 WHAT ARE STUDY SKILLS?
In very simple terms, ‘study skills’ may be defined as skills which help learners to study more
efficiently. There are two ways of being more effective learners: (a) Directly–by studying to
increase your knowledge of the subject matter. b) Indirectly–by improving your ability to learn
independently and at will.
5
We must be careful to distinguish linguistic skills from study skills. Linguistic skills help you
to ‘communicate’; study skills, on the other hand, enable you to ‘study’; and the process of
study involves four operations: perception, comprehension, retention and retrieval. In other
words you should first perceive what is relevant to your needs, and select only those areas
which are important. You cannot study everything available in every book/every internet site
you can lay hands on. Your study must be focused and for this you need to develop the skill of
reading with comprehension. What is not understood is not learnt. Comprehension thus
constitutes an important stage in the process of learning. However, mere comprehension does
not guarantee mastery of the subject; for human memory is so transient, that, what is
understood, may easily be forgotten, hence you have to make special efforts to retain what you
have learnt. Different students adopt different means towards retention. Some students blindly
memorize the whole lesson; brighter learners, however, try to remember the basic principles in
the form of short notes, which could be paraphrased later. The last stage in the learning process
involves the retrieval of what has been learnt. When required, for example, in the examination
hall, you should be able to retrieve all that you have learnt throughout the year. We shall look
at each of these sub-skills of study in greater detail.
In the literature on study skills, we refer to three major types of study skills corresponding to
the four operations in the process of study. They are:
(a) Gathering skills (perception, comprehension)
(b) Storing skills (Retention)
(c) Retrieval skills (Retrieval)
1.2.1 Gathering Skills
These skills enable learners to identify and locate relevant information. These skills include
reference skills and sub-skills of reading viz. scanning and skimming. Together they equip the
learner with the tools to find sources of information. Reference skills can be further subdivided
according to the material to be consulted into the following:
i use of dictionary, thesaurus, etc.
ii use of library
1.2.2 Reference Skills
Use of dictionary, thesaurus, etc.
As we know, a very important source of information in ESL (English as a second language)
teaching/learning situation is the dictionary. Most of our learners use a bilingual dictionary and
consult the dictionary when they encounter a problem with the meaning of a word. The use of
a dictionary just to check the meaning is a valid use but also one of the many uses a dictionary
can be put to. A good monolingual dictionary of English for learners is the most invaluable
source of information regarding the knowledge of a word, which involves pronunciation,
spelling, meaning (core meaning and extended meanings), grammar, collocations, idiomatic
expressions, associations, etc. (Refer to the unit on ‘Enhancing Vocabulary Skills’).
The dictionary remains an under-utilized source of information, if it is used at all. Every
dictionary comes with a section at the beginning telling us how to use it with detailed annotated
examples. However, these introductory sections often remain unread. Yet it is almost
6
peremptory that learners know that an entry for a word is made up of several parts. Different
symbols and typefaces indicate key features of the word –its pronunciation, for example and
how to spell its various forms – as well as its definitions and grammatical information. Here is
an entry from the Longman Active Study Dictionary of English for accessible:
Accessible/əkˈsɛsɪb(ə)l/adjeasy to get or get into, to, or at
The island is accessible only by boat. – opposite – inaccessible – accessibility
/əksɛsɪˈbɪlɪti/n [U]
The headword is accessible, the space within the two slanting lines tells us about the
pronunciation, for which phonetic symbols are used. After the pronunciation comes the
information about the word class (i.e. the part of speech) it belongs to. The abbreviation adj
tells us that accessible is an adjective. This is followed by the meaning after which is given an
example illustrating the use of the word in a particular context. Then we get the opposite of the
word. Last of all another word accessibility is mentioned, which is a derivative from accessible.
We are given information about its word class, i.e. n(oun) and are told that it is an uncountable
noun, indicated by [U] in square brackets. The meaning is not repeated.
We give below a few tasks through which learners can be taught how to exploit the full
potential of a dictionary. (We are using the Longman Active Study Dictionary of English for
the tasks.)
Task 1Alphabetical ordering
The words are given in the dictionary in simple alphabetical order. You should be able to
decide which word comes after or before another word.
Find the word in each column, which is not in alphabetical order. Put it in its correct place.
A B
Behalf sector
Bellyful secondly
believe secret
behave second nature
belly button Santa Claus
Task 2 Spelling and Pronunciation
The dictionary gives the spelling and pronunciation of the words. The pronunciation is given
in phonetic script. You should make yourself familiar with the phonetic symbols and the
sounds they represent.
i In two of the following words i.e. has been wrongly used in place of ei. Use a
dictionary to find them:
believe , recieve, retrieve, percieve, grieve
ii Use a dictionary to find the silent letters in the words given below, i.e. the letters which
are not pronounced. For example, the letter b is not pronounced in climb.
7
comb, island, knife, palm psychology
Task 3 Word Class Labels
The dictionary mentions the word class for every entry, which tells us whether a word is an
adjective, a verb or a preposition.
Consult a dictionary to see which word class the following words belong to (some of the
words may belong to more than one word class):
mind, chair, please, in, vegetable, game
Task 4 Grammar
The dictionary gives us the information whether a particular noun is countable or
uncountable. It tell us whether a verb is used with or without an object, or whether an
adjective is or is not followed by a noun and many other kinds of information about the
grammar of a word.
i Use a dictionary to find out which of the following words are used in singular, in
plural or both (if in plural, then also find the spelling and the pronunciation):
house, milk, news, progress, in-laws
ii Look up the following verbs in a dictionary and say whether they are used with an
object, without an object or in either way
bring, cross, fill, keep, remain
Task 5 Meaning
The dictionary may give more than one meaning for an entry. When consulting a dictionary,
you should be able to find the right meaning for the word used in a text.
Look at the entry for the word ‘free’ taken from the Longman Active Study Dictionary of
English, which has three different meanings. Below are also given three citations in which ‘free’
is used in different senses. Match the senses with the citations.
Free / fri: / adj 1 able to act as you wish, and not limited or controlled
2 not a prisoner
3 costing nothing
Citations: 1 all political prisoners will be set free next week.
2 I’ve got a couple of free tickets for tonight’s concert.
3 People are demanding the right to free speech and a free press.
Task 6 Collocations and Idioms
The dictionary gives us information about the way certain words collocate with certain other
words; the dictionary also makes available to us idioms (i.e. combinations of words with a fixed
meaning in which the meaning is not deducible from the combination of the given words).
8
(i) Match the words or phrases in Column A with a word or phrase from Column B.
Column A Column B
1. a series a purpose
2. to exert pain
3. a practical improvement
4. a slight of events
5. to inflict pressure
6. to serve suggestion
(ii) Read the following sentences and spot the idioms used in them. Make a guess at the
key word and look up the idiom in a dictionary.
1. The island has been a bone of contention between the two countries for many years.
2. The little girl is the apple of her father’s eye.
3. The man would hit the roof at the slightest provocation.
4. The boy keeps rubbing the teacher the wrong way.
5. You’ve had a hectic time, now it’s time to let your hair down.
Using a Thesaurus
The word thesaurus means ‘a treasure-house’ in Latin. And it is indeed a treasure house of words
for a writer. But it needs careful handling. The basic point to keep in mind is that a thesaurus
is not a substitute for a dictionary. It is a word-finder. It is a handy tool to help recall a word
that has slipped the mind and it gives us many alternative ways of writing when we want to
express ourselves more elegantly and effectively. But we have to remember that a thesaurus
does not tell us how to use a particular word or expression. For that we need a dictionary.
Use of Library
When using a library, learners should know how to use the catalogue to locate the book they
are looking for. In modern times, catalogues are computerized – hence some knowledge of
computers is essential. After they know how to locate the material, they should learn how to
refer to the material. Every book that they think is relevant may not be really useful. Many
times they have to make choices; they have to select not only relevant books but also relevant
chapters of books and relevant articles for purposes of study. It is not possible to go through
every book, every chapter, and every article in depth before they decide whether it contains
useful information or not. So the learners have to know the techniques to make a quick survey
and try to make a guess if the material is relevant to their specific need. This requires training
in surveying skills. Some of the questions we can ask are:
• Is the material relevant to the subject I am interested in?
• Which parts are relevant?
• Is it a recent publication or an old one?
• If an old one, is it a reprint?
• Is it by a known author?
• What is the level at which it is pitched?
• What are the comments about it?
9
Parts of the book that may help you answer your questions are (as given in Wallace,1988):
1. the publisher’s blurb (i.e. the publisher’s description of what the book is about –
usually to be found on the book-jacket).
2. reviewer’s comments (often also found quoted on the book jacket but remember only
the good reviews will be quoted!)
3. The foreword or preface.
4 The contents page.
5 The index.
6 The printing history (i.e. when the book was first published, reprinted, new edition
issued
– usually printed on one of the early pages).
Other parts worth looking at while surveying a book are the title and the sub-title, if any, which
help us anticipate the main theme of the text, the first chapter, which contains the introduction,
and the last chapter in which the author generally summarizes his/her arguments and presents
his/her conclusion.
When reading a chapter or an article or a large passage, we must survey it by looking at the
title which often hints at the main idea either directly or indirectly, and by reading the first
sentence in each paragraph, which often contains the main idea to be developed in greater detail
in subsequent sentences. Sometimes the first and the last paragraph of a chapter may also help
you get at the main drift of the chapter.
1.2.3 Skimming and Scanning
The reference skills have to be complemented by training in skimming and scanning the two
sub-skills of reading, which require a different reading style and speed, dictated by one’s
purpose in reading, Let us again understand what we mean by skimming and scanning.
Skimming involves searching for the main ideas of a text by reading the first and last
paragraphs or by looking for the topic sentences in each paragraph, noting other
organizational clues such as semantic markers or summaries used by the author. Skimming
does not require reading each and every word of the text, because the
purpose of the reading is looking for the main drift of the text.
Scanning involves rapidly glancing down the page looking for specific facts or key phrases.
Every text has an organizational framework and it is important to see how different parts of a
text hang together. We can say that every text is based on a ground plan, which looks roughly
like this:
Introduction- a general statement
The main idea- a hypothesis or a thesis statement
Elaboration and development – details, definitions, illustrations, comparisons, and
contrasts
Conclusion- restating the thesis, finalizing discussion
All the parts are linked together through linking devices, through repetition of keywords and
phrases, through semantic signals.
When reading a text, untrained learners sometimes get bogged down in detail and are not able
to get to the main ideas. They are not able to follow the organizational clues and tend to plod
through the text word for word, trying to cram it all in. For this reason, training in the skimming
and scanning techniques is very crucial. Learners must understand thoroughly the main
concepts of the text and then once they are familiar with the conceptual framework, they will
be in a better position to master the details. Thus, a preliminary skimming builds the foundation
of more intensive reading and maximum understanding. It gives the learner a logical
framework to fit the details in.
Similarly, scanning skills are valuable as an aid to locating new terms, definitions, dates, or
formulas as in a science textbook. The learner also needs to scan charts and figures for they
present the facts in a graphic form. The use of these skills will help not only in reducing the
time for intensive reading but also in retaining the details of the text.
Task 7
This exercise helps you trace the organization of a text and get to the main ideas.(This
exercise is partly based on the exercise in Study Skills in English, Michael J. Wallace,
Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1980.)
1. Using the title. The passage given below is entitled ‘The Surface of the Earth’. Does the title
tell you something?
2. Survey. Survey the passage by reading the first sentence of every paragraph and the last
paragraph. Very often the first sentence may contain the main idea – though sometimes the
main idea may come in the middle or at the end.
3. Anticipation. Now you should be able to ask yourself anticipation questions, i.e. questions,
which you think, should be answered by the text.
4. Read. Read through the passage quickly. Note your reading time.
5. Try to answer your anticipation questions. Refer back to the text to check your answers.
6. Organisation. Make an outline or draw a diagram to capture the main ideas.(We shall take
this up in the next section when we talk of storage skills.)
7. Summary. Using your outline or diagram, write a summary of the passage.(We shall talk
about the summarizing skill in the section on Retrieval skills.)
The following passage is taken from Working with English, Workbook for Class XI (Core
Course), p88.
The Surface of the Earth
To most of us the face of the earth – with its mountains, rivers, plains, and seas – does not seem
to change at all. But if we happen to live in certain places, perhaps near an active volcano, or a
11
powerful, swift-flowing river, or on the coast, we may be able to see some change taking place
– the river changing its course, or the sea wearing down parts of the cliffs. In fact, these changes
are going on all the time, but usually so slowly that there is hardly anything that can be
measured in a man’s lifetime. But a man’s lifetime is so short that it hardly counts in the history
of the earth, when a valley becomes deeper by only one inch each 100 years, and even that is
only a comparatively short time in the whole life of the earth.
Running water, glaciers, the wind and currents of the seas, heat and cold, and plants have all
been working together for billions of years changing the face of the earth. Changes begin with
the breaking up of rock into pieces that can be moved. Rock becomes broken up either by force
of one kind or another, or by being rotted by chemicals dissolved in rainwater, or in streams
and rivers. When rock has been cracked or broken by force it is more easily rotted by chemical
action, and rock that has been rotted is more easily broken by force.
All rocks cannot be broken equally easily by force since they are made of different materials
and in different ways. Some began to break up deep underground: they were cracked and
splintered as they cooled or as they were twisted and pushed by the forces which shaped the
mountains. Those that were made in layers break most easily between the layers where they
are weakest. Natural forces that break up rock masses use such cracks and lines of weakness.
Tiny plants may root themselves in the cracks of rocks, and as they grow, their roots grow too
and push and push, opening the cracks and in time even splitting the rock. Water and frost are
powerful rock splitters. Water may freeze in a crack and, as water expands when it turns into
ice, the ice presses on the crack and makes it bigger. Most swift-flowing streams carry
downstream rocks and boulders, and as these are rolled and swung along by the water, they
strike the rock in the stream banks and bed and break off pieces. Forest fires often weaken and
crack rocks, and rocks can also be shattered by lightening.
These many ways of breaking up rock go on everywhere in the world. They work most quickly
in places where the rocks have cracks and weaknesses, where there are many trees and plants
with strong, pushing roots, and in cold climates where there is frequent freezing and thawing.
Check Your Progress 1
1. How will you find out whether the word bough is pronounced as rough or as dough or
as neither?
……………………………………………………………………………………..……
………………………………………………………………………………..…………
…………………………………………………………………………..………………
……………………………………………………………………..……………………
………………………………………………………………..…………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
2. Given below is a part of the Content page and a part of the Index from the book, Study
Skills. Look at both to answer the questions that follow.
Contents
Acknowledgement
For the Learner
12
Part A: Basic Skills
Unit 1 How do I learn? 2
1 Getting to know Study Skills. 2
2 How do you learn best? 3
3 Preparation and pacing your work 5
4 Study tasks 8
5 Unit assessment and application 10
Unit 2 Thinking it Through 12
1 How well do you think things through? 12
2 All that I need to know 13
3 What do the words mean? 14
4 Reducing devices 16
5 Unit assessment 20
Index
Self-evaluation 3-5,8-10, 11,
69-70,74,90-3, 138, 139, 145,
146, 184-7, 190, 192, 194-200
Sequencing ideas 96-102
Short-answer tests 136-7,139
Skimming 74-6
Stress 141-2,191
Study preparation 5-8
Term papers 137-8
Timetables 6-8, 185, 188-9
Title page 42-3
Tone 111, 113
Topic sentences 108
Validity 121 -5
Venn diagrams 33-44
Wordbook 2
Writing units 8,9
Writing source cards 48-9
a. What different kinds of information do you get from the Contents and the Index?
……………………………………………………………………………………..……
………………………………………………………………………………..…………
…………………………………………………………………………..………………
……………………………………………………………………..……………………
b. Which pages give you information about skimming?
……………………………………………………………………………………..……
………………………………………………………………………………..…………
…………………………………………………………………………..………………
……………………………………………………………………..……………………
c. Which topic is dealt with in greater length- self-evaluation or term papers? How do
you infer?
……………………………………………………………………………………..……
………………………………………………………………………………..…………
13
…………………………………………………………………………..………………
……………………………………………………………………..……………………
3. This is to be done in 45 seconds. Look at the index given in question 2and check the
references for the following:
Term papers
Stress
Tone
Short-answer tests
Validity
1.3 STORAGE SKILLS
In this section we shall consider the ways in which we can store the information/knowledge
we have gathered for later use. The ways in which we do this are:
a. note taking (in class), and
b. note making (at home or in the library)
These skills are important as
• An aid to understanding and comprehension
• A record of facts and processes
• An aid to jog one’s memory later on
• A record of different points of view
• An aid for further study
• A summary of arguments and ideas
• A check that one does not fall asleep!
As the name suggests, storage skills involve the ability to store information for ready retrieval
and use. You may ask: What is so difficult about ‘storing’ information? Once we have read and
understood some information, is it not automatically stored in the memory? I would say, ‘partly
yes’ and ‘partly no’. What does this mean? We do remember what we read/listen to; but not
everything. So, most of us hasten to copy down important facts. If we are not properly trained,
we would waste a lot of time in copying; further, just before the examination, when the students
revise all the lessons, it would be just impossible for them to read through hundreds of pages.
They should have the notes in a brief and precise form, ready for quick reference. In fact, each
student adopts his/her own way of storing information. However, s/he will benefit greatly from
a training in storing skills.
Storing skills are of two major categories:
(a) Note-taking which involves listening to lectures and taking down notes –i.e. the main
and subordinate points. This is a skill every student needs to master.
(b) Note-making is very similar to note-taking, except for the fact that note-making
involves reading books and making notes, whereas note-taking involves listening to a
lecture and taking down notes. Note-making is a more leisurely activity.
Both the skills above may be divided into the following sub-skills.
i. Comprehension of the text/lecture
ii. Identification of the main points
iii. Distinguishing main factors from subordinate ones
iv. Deciding on the order of priority among the various points
v. Identifying the organisation of points
vi. Organising the points into a visual display.
Note-making and note-taking are meant only for the student’s private use, hence s/he is free to
use any abbreviation, symbol, etc. although it would be a good idea to use standard reduction
devices. We will be discussing these skills in the next unit in detail. We have given you some
tasks which you may attempt on your own to hone your skills.
(A) Note-Making
Task 8
Read the following passage and then fill in the notes below:
Up to the end of the eighteenth century, small-pox was a particularly dreaded disease, not only
because it was often fatal but also because those who recovered were permanently disfigured.
A very large proportion of the population bore the marks of small-pox on their faces.
In the seventeenth century, people in Turkey began to inject themselves deliberately with mild
forms of small-pox with the hope of making themselves immune to severe attacks. Sometimes
they developed a light infection as a reaction; sometimes they suffered the very disfigurement
or death they had sought to avoid. It was a risky business, but people were willing to risk the
horror in order to escape from it.
Certain country folk in England believed that a case of cow pox, a disease that attacked cows
and sometimes people, would make a person immune to both cowpox and smallpox. An
English doctor Edward Jenner decided that there might be some truth in this ‘folk’ superstition.
Milkmaids, he noticed, were particularly prone not to be pockmarked by smallpox.
Very cautiously Dr. Jenner began to test this notion. In 1796, he decided to make the supreme
test.
Now fill in the blanks in the notes below:
1. Small pox – a dreaded disease till the end of the 18th Century.
Reasons:
(a)………………………………………………………..
(b) ………………………………………………………..
2. Attempts to conquer smallpox – Turkey – 17th century – risky method – injecting mild
forms of small pox.
(a)………………………………………………………..
(b) ………………………………………………………..
3.
(a)………………………………………………………..
(b) ………………………………………………………..
15
Task 9
Notes may also be made diagrammatically. Read the passage below:
Students can acquire information in several ways. Their teachers give lectures, conduct
tutorials and issue handouts. They can read library books, listen to the radio or watch
TV and thus learn from other experts. They can get information from fellow students
through seminars or informal conversations. They can also learn by themselves by
thinking about the subject when they are alone.
Now fill in the diagram below:
(Adapted from Study Skills in English. Michael J. Wallace,
Cambridge University Press, 1980.)
b) Diagramming/Information Transfer
The diagrammatic presentation of notes as seen in the task above is also known as
diagramming. Diagrams are of various types: trees, pie charts, histograms, graphs, tables, etc.
Such visual display can be grasped quickly and also facilitates retention. In most disciplines
writers resort to such diagrammatic or visual presentation. e.g. labeling of the digestive system
or genealogy of a king, etc.
‘Information Transfer’ means the restatement of verbal information in non-verbal form or viceversa.
Task 10
The following pie-chart represents the budget of the family of Mr. Iqbal. Study it carefully and
rewrite it in the form of a paragraph
Task 11
Given below is the floor plan of a deluxe room in Hotel Bombay International. Write a
paragraph describing the room.
1.3.1 Retrieval Skills
While writing an examination, or participating in a conference or seminar, students need to
summarise their ideas in a coherent form, so that their readers can understand them. Or
sometimes they have to prepare a research abstract based on their reading.
The student will of course base their summary or abstract on the notes they had prepared earlier.
The length of a summary may vary depending on the purpose for which it is intended.
Generally, the precis in the examination papers is required to be one-third of the original; but
all summaries need not be so.
Summarising is not an exercise to be learnt for use in the class room alone; it has relevance for
life. We can summarise articles, chapters and even books for future reference. If you area
secretary, your boss may ask you to present the gist of a document. A newspaper reporter’s job
is to summarise speeches and reports. Scientists and researchers read abstracts of important
18
books/papers to keep themselves up-to-date and save time as well. A good summary requires
several skills on the part of the student: reading, comprehension, analysis, judgment, clarity,
brevity, etc.
Task12
Read the Editorial of today’s newspaper and summarise it in about 100 words, to be put upon
the School News Bulletin board today
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Check Your Progress 2
1. What are ‘skills’? How do they differ from ‘knowledge??
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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2. What are the major study skills?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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3. Distinguish between note-making and note-taking.
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4. How does a summary benefit its reader?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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5. What skills do you need in order to write a good summary?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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19
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1.4 WHY DO STUDENTS NEED TRAINING IN STUDY SKILLS?
Students have two types of goals: the short-term goal is to pass the examination. The long-term
goal, on the other hand, is to prepare for life; in other words, the second goal extends beyond
examinations. In order to achieve both these goals you need to know how to study. Hence the
importance of study skills.
It is a sad reflection on our education system that our learners do not know the study skills even
in relation to their mother tongue. They do not know how to locate information or make notes
even when they refer to books in the vernacular. Very often, the English teacher tells them what
study skills are, as well as, how to develop them. By training them in study skills, the teacher
indirectly helps them to study their other subjects more efficiently. Who taught you study skill?
Many students feel that conscious learning of study skills is not necessary. They think that
study skills are learnt unconsciously. There is no need to be taught how to make notes. We can
learn it on our own. There is no need to ‘waste’ precious class time on such trivialities.
There are two basic flaws in this argument. Firstly, we know from experience that most students
do not learn study skills on their own. Even when they join the undergraduate course, they do
not know how to make notes or how to write a summary. They lift words at random and string
them together and call it a precis. The concept of note-making is totally strange to them.
Secondly, even learners who can learn these skills on their own, might take a long time doing
so. In the absence of guidance, they have to adopt the ‘trial and error’ method to develop these
skills. If, on the other hand, they are given some training, they will learn these quickly; this, in
turn, will accelerate their pace of learning the other subjects as well. Instead of regarding the
time spent on developing study skills as a waste of time, it is necessary to regard it as a wise
investment, so expend some effort in developing study skills.
Study skills are needed at all levels. Even children at the primary level need them. For example,
identifying the moral of a story is a study skill. Locating answers to questions is another study
skill. As students go to higher classes the nature of study skills becomes more complex.
Learning to learn, as we pointed out earlier, is more important than learning per se.
1.5 LET US SUM UP
These are some of the points that you have been made aware of in this unit:
• Language is a skill, not knowledge.
• Skills are acquired through practice.
• Study skills are different from the four linguistic skills of Listening, Speaking,
Reading and Writing. Study skills enable learners to study more efficiently.
• The process of study involves three operations: perception, retention and retrieval.
• There are three study skills corresponding to the four operations, namely, Gathering
skills, Storage skills and Retrieval skills.
20
• Gathering skills help learners to locate and comprehend sources of information, e.g.
use of a dictionary, skimming, scanning, etc.
• Storage skills enable learners to store information for ready retrieval and use, e.g.
Note-making, Note-taking, Diagramming.
• Retrieval skills help learners to retrieve information when they need it, e.g.
summarising.
• Students need training in study skills.
1.6 SUGGESTING READING
Study Skills in English, Michael J. Wallace, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1980.
1.7 ANSWERS
Check Your Progress 1
1. We should look up a dictionary for the pronunciation.
2a. The Contents give us a general idea about the topics dealt with in the book whereas
the Index tells us about specific items, or units dealt with along with their page
numbers.
b. Pages 74 to 76.
c. If we look at the Index we see the number of pages devoted to a certain topic. This
tells us that there is a more extensive treatment given to self-evaluation as compared
to term papers
3. Term papers – pp 137-8
Stress – 141-2,191
Tone – 111, 113
Short answer tests – 136-7, 139
Validity – 121-5
Check Your Progress 2
1. ‘Skill’ is a special ability to do something, gained through practice. Knowledge refers
to the information one has gained through learning.
2. The major study skills are of three categories: gathering skills, storing skills and
retrieval skills.
3. Note-taking occurs when you take notes from a reading text or when you are listening
to a lecture. Note-making happens when you fair up your notes for reference later.
4. A summary saves times for the reader.
21
5. Skills required for writing summary:
Comprehension: ability to identify major and minor points; ability to recognize the
hierarchy of ideas in a text; ability to write a coherent piece of discourse.
22
UNIT 2 TECHNIQUES OF NOTE TAKING – MAIN AND
SUBORDINATE POINTS
Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 How to Read
2.3 Specimen Notes
2.4 Reduction Devices
2.5 Passage for Note-taking
2.6 Headings and Subordinate Points
2.7 Cornell Note Taking Method
2.8 Let Us Sum Up
2.9 Suggested Readings
2.10 Answers
2.0 OBJECTIVES
The aim of this unit is to help you take notes for the purpose of study. For this you require a)
the ability to read with a purpose, and to separate the essential information in a text from that
which is repetitive and irrelevant, b) shortening devices to save time and condense your
material, and c) a proper organization of the ideas contained in the text in terms of main points
and subordinate points.
After you have completed this unit, you should be able to use these skills in preparing your
notes.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Almost anyone who studies at a college or university or works in an office has to take notes
sometimes. As a student you generally take notes while listening to a lecturer in the classroom
or a speaker at a seminar, or when reading your course books. In an office you may need to
take notes when the boss gives you instructions, or when you attend a meeting or a conference.
Sometimes you may have to take an examination to improve your qualifications or to compete
for a better job. Then you have to take notes from the books you read. While taking notes,
have you ever asked yourself the reason for taking them? There are usually two main reasons:
i) to keep a record of the speaker’s or the writer’s main ideas (not to take down or copy
every word);
ii) to help your memory when, for example, you are revising for an examination,
or preparing a report.
The tendency of many students is to try to write down as much as possible of what the teacher
is saying. In this process, they often miss the main points of the lecture, but, on the other hand,
take down a lot of unimportant information. Similarly, when you are taking notes from a book
or an article, it is generally not a good idea to copy out large chunks of a text, unless you are
going to quote from it.
In this Unit we shall deal with taking notes from a reading text from the point of view of the
organization of notes. In the next unit on Note-taking we shall discuss the organization of
notes in terms of Tables and Diagrams.
2.2 HOW TO READ
When we read, we generally have a purpose in mind. The purpose may be to spend some time
on a rainy afternoon by reading a detective novel or a love story.
Often our purpose is to obtain information on a particular topic. When you read a passage in
order to obtain specific information, it is a good idea to acquaint yourself with the text by
quickly going through it. You will notice that some paragraphs will contain the information
you want, and they must be read carefully. Other paragraphs may contain a lot of repetition,
and they can be skimmed, i.e. read faster and more superficially. There may be some passages
that are of no interest to us or are completely irrelevant for our purpose, and they can be
skipped.
Example 1
In the passage that follows, your purpose in reading will be to obtain information about the
various kinds of heart diseases, their causes and symptoms.
A. Heart disease is the enemy number one of the human body in our time. It accounts for the
largest number of deaths in all affluent societies outstripping cancer, accidents and
infections as causes of death. In developing countries as well, this trend is apparent, now
that fewer people die of infections, and more children survive the diseases of childhood.
B. There are four important types of heart disease. Firstly, congenital heart disease, which is
present at birth; an example of this is the so-called ‘blue baby’. It accounts for 2 per cent
of all heart diseases. The second type, rheumatic, is quite common in some developing
countries among the young people, and accounts for some 30 to 40 per cent of all heart
cases. It is caused by an infection of the throat which, if untreated, causes damage to the
heart. The symptoms are a chronic sore throat, painful joints and high fever. This disease
is widespread in many developing countries, due to poor living conditions and
overcrowding.
C. High blood pressure is also an important cause of heart disease, of the third
type, hypertensive, and accounts for some 15 to 25 per cent of all heart cases. It is believed
that among other factors such as stress and smoking, a higher salt intake in the diet leads
to blood pressure.
D. Degenerative heart disease, commonly known as is chaemic heart disease, is the cause of
heart attacks, and is one of the most important health problems among adults throughout
the world. Is chaemic heart disease is due to blocking of the two blood vessels which
supply blood to the heart muscle. At birth they are wide open, but in a diseased state one
or more of these vessels is completely blocked, leading to defective blood supply to various
portions of the heart. This results in the well-known symptom of pain on emotional or
24
physical stress called angina. What causes this is the laying down of a fatty substance,
called cholesterol, in the wall of the artery, which gradually blocks the vessel and may
close it completely.
E. How does cholesterol get into the blood? It results partly from a diet rich in fats of animal
origin, such as butter, cream, cheese, rich cuts of beef, ham and bacon, egg yolk, and
saturated cooking fats, such as ghee.
(Based on ‘The Heart’ in Sarah Freeman, Study Strategies in English)
Check Your Progress 1
Read the above passage carefully and answer the following questions:
1 In Paragraph A, the writer mainly wishes to inform the reader that:
a) more children survive the diseases of childhood than ever before.
b) heart disease is also quite prevalent in developing countries.
c) heart disease is the world’s major killer of our times.
(Choose the correct answer.)
2 State whether the following are true (T) or false (F):
a) A congenital heart disease is something that a baby is born with.
(b) A continually bad throat and fever will always lead to a rheumatic
heart disease.
(c) Rheumatic heart disease is common among young people in some countries.
(d) People who smoke, but take less salt in their diet, are not likely to get
high blood
pressure.
(e) Angina is a signal that a person has high blood pressure.
3a) In what types of heart disease does diet play an important role?
…………………………………………………
…………………………………………………
b) What are the food habits that contribute to heart disease in each case?
…………………………………………………
…………………………………………………
4 State the main idea of the passage. Write it as a title for the passage.
…………………………………………………
…………………………………………………
5a) The purpose in reading the passage was to find out details of the four types of heart
disease in terms of their causes and symptoms. Which paragraphs do you think are
unimportant for this purpose?
…………………………………………………
…………………………………………………
…………………………………………………
25
b) Were they unimportant because
i) they did not contain the information you wanted, or
ii) the same information was repeated again and again.
6 Write a summary of the passage in the form of points keeping in mind the purpose
stated above.
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2.3 SPECIMEN NOTES
Compare your account of the 4 types of heart disease (Question 6 of Check Your Progress 1)
with the notes given below:
Notes (1)
Types of Heart Disease: their Causes and Symptoms
1. Congenital heart disease (h.d.)present at birth, e.g., blue baby
2 Rheumatic h.d (caused by) untreated infection of throat;
symptoms – chronic sore throat, painful joints, and
high fever. Widespread in developing countries,
overcrowding + poor living conditions, accounts for
30-40% of all heart cases.
3. Hypertensive h.d. high blood pressure stress, smoking + higher salt
= degenerative h.d. intake in diet.
4. Ischaemic h.d. blockage of arteries by cholesterol+angina, heart
attacks.
You will notice that the sentences and some of the words have been reduced, and certain
symbols and abbreviations used. We give below a list of these reduction devices, which you
can use while taking notes yourself.
26
2.4 REDUCTION DEVICES
Reduction devices are an important technique in note-taking. They help you save time when
you are noting down something from a book. They are particularly useful when you are taking
down notes from a lecture, because otherwise it will be difficult to keep pace with the speaker.
Since notes do not contain repetitive and unnecessary information, reduction devices help to
give a more organized picture of what the writer/ speaker is saying.
1. You can use symbols (lines, arrows, etc.) instead of words.
a) Arrows
Look at this passage from the text:
‘Blockage of arteries leads to a defective blood supply to the heart. This results in the
well-known symptom of pain on emotional or physical stress called angina.’
In the notes we can write:
Blockage of arteries→def. blood supply → angina.
An arrow can also mean ‘changes into’, ’causes’, ‘contributes to’, etc.
An arrow in the reverse direction () means ‘is attributed to’, ‘is caused by’ as in the
following example:
‘Rheumatic heart disease is caused by an infection of the throat which is not treated’.
Rheumatic h,d. untreated throat infection.
An arrow with two headscan mean ‘related to’.
b) Underlining is used to show what is important.
c) Mathematical symbols:
i) Figures instead of words for numbers (26 instead of ‘twenty-six’, for example).
ii) ‘the same as’ becomes =
iii) ‘not the same as’ becomes #
iv) ‘is less than’ becomes <
v) ‘is more than’ becomes >
vi) ‘therefore’ becomes
vii) ‘because’ becomes ‘.’
2. You can use abbreviations (a few letters instead of the whole word).
a) Units of measurement:
i) second – sec.
ii) minute – min.
iii) hour – hr.
iv) year – yr.
v) month – mth.
vi) meter – m.
vii) kilogram – kg.
b) Useful abbreviations for words and phrases:
i) and so on – etc.
ii) compare – cf.
iii) that is – i.e.
iv) for example – e.g.
v) about, approximately – ca.
vi) twentieth century – C 20
c) Shortening -tion or -sion at the end of a word, e.g.
i) reaction – reactn
.
ii) conclusion – conclus n
.
You can usually shorten words by omitting or shortening the ending or suffix, and putting a
full-stop to show that something has been omitted. There are some words which are shortened
in a standard way and others which you will have to shorten yourself on the pattern of the
common words. Here are some examples of abbreviations of words taken from Example 1,
which follow the pattern shown above:
developing – developg
emotional – emotnl.
defective – defectve.
important – importnt.
d) Shortening long words or phrases for which there is no symbol or abbreviation, or
even a pattern that can be followed. Here are some examples from the passage that
you have read: d
disease – dis.
heart disease – h.d.
blood pressure – b.p.
cholesterol – cholestl.
Shortening of words as in (c) and (d) is probably more useful when you take down notes
during a lecture, as it is difficult to keep pace otherwise.
Here it doesn’t really matter what system you use, as long as you can understand your own
notes when you return to them after some time. It may be a good idea when adopting your
own abbreviations to write a word or a phrase in full with your abbreviation after it the first
time it occurs. e.g., heart disease (h.d.)
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The lists of symbols and abbreviations given here and the suggestions for shortening words
and phrases are not, of course, complete and exhaustive. These are mere suggestions, which
will enable you to use these abbreviations and symbols whenever you have to take down
notes.
Check Your Progress 2
Shorten the following sentences, but do not shorten them so much that you may not understand
your notes later.
1 At about the age of four, the school life of a child begins.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
2 For example, water covers seventy-one per cent of the earth’s surface.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
3 Heart disease causes half a million deaths a year in the United States of America.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
4 Two important diseases caused by the deficiency of Vitamin A are exophthalmia and
night blindness.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
5 Road conditions also contribute to higher fuel consumption and this
increases pollution.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
2.5 PASSAGE FOR NOTE-TAKING
Now read the following passage. Your purpose will be to discover the different theories of
aging. Once again, only some paragraphs in the passage will be useful to you.
Example 2
A The average life span differs very widely for different organisms. While some live for
short periods, others may have a life of several decades or even centuries. None,
however, lives forever. Even if an individual meets with no fatal accident, is not eaten
up by a predator, or does not suffer a killing disease, death still comes as the natural
final result of old age.
B Aging is defined as the process of progressive deterioration in the structure
and function of the cells, tissues and organs of the organism as it grows older. The
area of developmental biology which is concerned with the study of the processes of
aging is known as gerontology.
C Why should an animal age at all? Why do some animals age more rapidly and have a
shorter life span than others? Why do different cell types and tissues within the same
individual age at different rates? We still do not know enough about the process and
causes of aging, although many theories have been proposed to explain this
phenomenon.
D Some biologists suggest that adverse changes in the environment are the causes of
aging in the organisms. Others believe that aging is an intrinsic genetic property of the
29
cells of an organism. According to a compromise theory, aging is due to an interaction
between hereditary factors (genes) and the environment. We know, for example, that
domestication of animals increases their life span. Another theory proposes that the
cells and organisms with a high rate of metabolism age more rapidly and die sooner
than those with a relatively lower rate of metabolic activity.
E A more recently proposed immunity theory of aging suggests that the decline
and disappearance of the thymus gland by late middle age in man is the primary cause
of aging. With the disappearance of this gland, the defences of the body against foreign
invasion weaken, and, at the same time, the number of defective, abnormal and
harmful cells produced in the body itself goes up. This results in increasing damage
and destruction of the tissues.
F While each theory of aging is supported by some evidence, none of
them comprehensively explains this phenomenon. A theory which explains aging in
all kinds of organisms can be formulated only when more facts are known about aging
processes in a variety of species living under different conditions.
(Adapted from Biology, a textbook for Higher Secondary Schools, Classes XI-XI1, NCERT.)
Check Your Progress 3
The following questions will help you to understand both the content and the organization of
the passage better.
1 What title would you give this passage?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
2 What are the various causes of death mentioned in the passage?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
3 Which theory, according to the author, explains aging’ comprehensively’?
a) the ‘compromise’ theory according to which hereditary factors and
environment play an important role in aging;
b) the immunity theory which suggests that the defence mechanism of a human
being declines with the disappearance of the thymus gland in middle age;
c) the rate of metabolism theory, which proposes that organisms with a higher
rate of metabolic activity die earlier than those with a lower rate of metabolic
activity;
d) None of these.
4 What could be the ‘foreign invaders’ referred to in paragraph E?
Check Your Progress 4
Notes (2)
Fill in the gaps to complete the following notes:
30
Theories of Aging
1 adverse changes in envt. ………………………………………………. ……………………………
2 intrinsic …………………………………………. (i)………………………………………….
3 …………………………………………. (ii) ……………………………………….. + envtl
factors,
e.g. …………………………………………. (iii) ………………………………………….
4 ……………………………….. (iv) …………………………………….metabolic activity → aging
5 immunity theory …………………………………. (v) ………………………… disappearce
of…………………………………….. (vi) ………………………… in late middle age in man.
……………………. vii ………………………………………….. attack ………… (vii)……………+
greater productn
of …………………………….. (ix) …………………………..→
(x) ……………………………….
You will notice that besides using symbols and abbreviations we have also omitted words like
the, a and the verb be (are, is, was, were, etc.). In note-taking such omissions are quite
common, because we want to save time. However, in normal writing you must not use any of
these shortening devices.
2.6 HEADINGS AND SUBORDINATE POINTS
When the information content is small and not particularly well-organized, our notes may
contain just a few phrases. However, when we study, our information content is often large
and organized around a topic. In such a situation, it makes our notes clearer, if we have
headings and subordinates points. For example, look at Notes (1) again.
Heading: Types of Heart Disease – Their Causes & Symptoms
1) Congenital h.d.
2) Rheumatic h.d.
Subordinate points 3) Hypertensive h.d.
4) Ischaemic h.d.
It is perhaps helpful to follow a pattern where
a) the heading is underlined;
b) the subordinate points are placed under the heading and indented, that is, the lines are started
further into the page than the line for the heading. This shows that they are dependent on the
main topic. The subordinate points are directly under each other. This shows they are of
approximately the same importance.
Two Types of Subordinate Points
There are generally two types of subordinate points.
31
a) Those that are independent of each other, depending only on the heading; for example,
see Notes (1) and (2).
b) Those that are related to each other, only the first depending directly on the heading.
If you look at Notes (1) again in Section 2.3, you will notice that the subordinate points can
be reordered (e.g. 4 before 3 before 2, etc.). In fact, they can also be arranged like this:
These
subpoints
are all directly dependent on the heading. Some books call such sub- points – spokes, because
they can be arranged like the spokes on the wheel of a bicycle, as shown in the following
figure.
Example 3
Read the following passage carefully and find out where human settlements took place and
why.
There is hardly any part of the globe in which people have not settled. In some cases the
settlement may be no bigger than one or two families and their livestock, in others the
settlement may be a city as large as New York.
There is always a good reason for a settlement being where it is. If you look in the atlas you
will see that most of the world’s major cities are located on an important river or on a coastline.
This is because they grew up as trading centres, importing and exporting goods to serve their
surrounding areas. Inland towns and cities are often at the meeting point of two or more land
or river trading routes. With trade comes prosperity, so towns and cities can support increasing
populations.
Agricultural settlements – farms and villages – need fertile soil and a supply of water for both
crops and drinking. River valleys have both, and so are often densely settled – a large
proportion of India’s population, for example, lives in the plain of the Ganges River. Another
factor determining the sitting of a settlement is that it can be easily defended against enemy
attack in time of war. Many towns and villages were originally founded on hill sites for this
reason.
Check Your Progress 5
1 If you were taking notes, what heading would you give this passage?
………………………………………………………………………..
2 Are the subordinate points of this passage dependent on each other?
………………………………………………………………………..
3 Take notes from the passage above, keeping in mind the heading and the subordinate
points. Some help is provided for you.
Notes 3
…………………………………………..(i)………………………
1 Location………………………………(ii)…………………….
Reason ……………………….(iii)…………………….
2 Location………………………………(iv)…………………….
Reason ……………………….(v)…………………….
3 Location………………………………(vi)…………………….
Reason ……………………….(vii)…………………….
Example 4
Read the following paragraph on the formation of coal. The process of formation of coal is
thought to have begun over 250 million years ago. At that time much of the world was covered
with luxuriant vegetation growing in swamps. Many of these plants were types of ferns, some
as large as trees. When this vegetation died, it sank into the muddy water, where it gradually
decomposed. As decomposition took place, the vegetable matter lost oxygen and hydrogen
atoms, leaving a deposit with a high percentage of carbon. In this way peat bogs were formed.
As time passed, layers of sand and mud settled from the water over some of the peat deposits.
33
The pressure of these overlying layers, as well as movements of the earth’s crust and
sometimes volcanic heat, acted to compress and harden the deposits and raise the carbon
content in them, thus producing coal.
(from Funk and Wagnall’s New Encyclopedia, Harper and Row Publishers Inc.)
Check Your Progress 6
Read the passage carefully and take notes from it, keeping in mind the heading and the
subordinate points. Some help is provided for you. Note how the relationship of the
subordinate points here is different from that in Notes (3).
Notes 4
(heading) (i)…………………………………………..
1 vegetation growing in swamps (over 250m. yrs ago).
2 ……………………………………………………. (ii) ………………………………..
3 it decomposed
4 decomposition →…………………………..(iii) ……………………………….
5 peat bogs formed
6 ……………………………………………………. (iv) ………………………………..
7 …………………………………………………….. (v) ………………………………..
Check your answers with those given by us at the end of the Unit.
In Notes (4) the sub-points are again arranged vertically, but they cannot be reordered, because
each point leads to another. To show clearly that one point leads to another, they can be
arranged horizontally, like this: I
Formation of Coal
Some books call these subordinate points links in a chain.
We would suggest that you arrange your notes vertically rather than in spokes or chains. It is,
however, useful to know whether the subordinate points in a text are dependent or independent
of each other.
This will help you read with greater understanding.
It
decomposed
Vegetation
growing in
swamps
over 250m
yrs ago
34
Subordinate points that are independent of each other need not all be noted. If one or more is
omitted, it will not affect the rest.
Subordinate points that are dependent on each other must all be noted.
2.7 CORNELL NOTE TAKING METHOD
Another technique of note taking is the Cornell Note Taking Method. It is a system of taking,
organizing and reviewing notes which was devised by Prof. Walter Pauk of Cornell
University.
This method requires very little preparation – no tables or diagrams, which makes it ideal for
note-taking during a lecture. The notes page can be divided into three-four different sections:
Title Date
Key words
• Questions that
connect points
• Diagrams
• Study prompts
Summary
Two columns, on eat the bottom of the page, and one smaller area at the topic of the place.
• All the actual notes from the lecture go into the main notes-taking column.
• The smaller column on the left side is about the questions, about the teacher’s notes
that can be answered when reviewing, and key words or comments that make the
reviewing process and later the exam preparation easier. When reviewing the notes, it
is suggested to write a brief summary of every page into the section at the bottom.
So much for the structure of the notes. However, these notes encourage you to go over
your notes each day – reflect on them, since you need to summarise your notes. If you are
working on your laptop, it could be useful to reorder information on the page.
According to this method these are 5 Rs of Note-Taking:
• Record: Write all meaningful information, using abbreviations and shortening
devices.
• Reduce: After the lecture, write a summary of the ideas/facts using key words or cue
words.
• Recite: Recite all the information in your own words without looking at the notes.
• Reflect: Think about your own opinions and ideas. Raise Questions
• Review: Before the next class, take 10 minutes to review your previous notes.
(adapted from Pauk W,2001)
2.8 LET US SUM UP
In this unit we have suggested that it is necessary to read with a clear purpose in mind, so that
you can separate the essential information in a text from what is repetitive or irrelevant. We
have also told you about the techniques of note-taking in terms of shortening devices such as
abbreviations and symbols, and the organization of notes in terms of headings and subordinate
points. Finally, we have briefly looked at the Cornell Method.
2.9 SUGGESTED READINGS
Sarah Freeman: Study Strategies in English ,Orient Longman.
Walter Pauk, 2001, How to Study in College, Houghton Mifflin Company.
2.10 ANSWERS
Check Your Progress 1
1 c)
2 a) T b) F c) T d) F e) F
3 a) Hypertensive and Ischaemic heart diseases.
b) A high intake of salt can lead to hypertensive heart disease. A diet rich in fats of
animal origin, such as butter, cream, cheese, beef, ham, bacon, egg-yolk and ghee can
increase the level of cholesterol in the blood and cause ischaemic heart disease.
36
4 Types of Heart Disease: Their Causes and Symptoms
5 a) Paragraphs A and E
b) (i) for both A and E.
6 Do it yourself.
Check Your Progress 2
1 At 4 child begins school.
2 e.g. water covers 71% of earth’s surface.
3 Heart dis.→1/2m. deaths p.a. in U.S.
Xerophthalmia
4 defcy of Vit. A
Night blindness
5 Road conditions→higher fuel consumpn→more pollution
Check Your Progress 3
1 Theories of Aging
2 accident, being eaten up by a predator, disease, old age.
3 (d)
4 These could be various kinds of disease-causing bacteria, germs, and virus.
Check Your Progress 4
i) genetic property of cells
ii) hereditary
iii) domestication of animals increases life span
iv) higher
v) suggests
vi) thymus gland
vii) foreign invaders
viii) body
ix) defective, abnormal cells in body
x) damage to tissues.
Check Your Progress 5
1 The Location of Human Settlement
2 No; they are dependent on the Heading.
3 i) The Location of Human Settlements v) agriculture
ii) on rivers or coastlines vi) hill sites
iii) trading centres vii) defence against enemy attack
iv) in river valleys
Check Your Progress6
i) Formation of Coal
ii) when it died, it sank in muddy water
iii) loss of O+H atoms in veg. matter →high % of C.
iv) sand + mud settled on peat.
v) pressure of overlying layers + movements of earth’s crust + volcanic heat→,
compressn
and hardeng
of deposits + more C+ coal.
38
UNIT 3 TECHNIQUES OF NOTE TAKING: USE OF
TABLES AND DIAGRAMS
Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Organization of Notes: Tables
3.2.1 A Passage Giving Information in the Form of Figures
3.2.2 A Passage Giving a Contrastive Description
3.2.3 A Passage Presenting Different Aspects of a Topic
3.3 Organization of Notes: Diagrams
3.3.l Flow Charts
3.3.2 Tree Diagrams
3.3.3 Other Diagrams
3.4 Let Us Sum Up
3.5 Answers
3.0 OBJECTIVES
The aim of this unit is to show you different ways of organizing notes, such as the use of tables
and diagrams, and to make you aware that different types of texts require different note-taking
techniques.
After you complete this unit, you will be able to decide on the type of note-taking technique
you require for different types of passages, and use that technique successfully.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
This is the second unit on Note-taking. In Unit 2 (Block 3) we discussed the taking of notes
from reading material and lectures in terms of the following:
i) reading with a purpose in mind so as to differentiate between paragraphs that contain
essential information and those that do not;
ii) the use of shortening devices such as the use of abbreviations and symbols which will
save time and effort;
iii) the ability to organize the material in terms of main headings and subordinate points.
In this unit we shall continue our discussion on notes from reading material. We shall, however,
concentrate on the organization of notes in terms of tables, charts, and diagrams.
3.2 ORGANIZATION OF NOTES: TABLES
We often have to take notes from passages which contain figures, contrasts (that is, differences
between two things or persons), or different aspects of a single topic. It is then convenient to
39
organize your notes in the form of lists or tables. This will make it easier to read and use the
information later.
3.2.1 A Passage Giving Information in the Form of Figures
Example 1
Your purpose in reading the following passage will be to find out in the quantity of the different
varieties of cooking oil used in the country and the regions where different kinds of oil are
used.
Edible oils are an important constituent of the Indian diet. Besides being a source of energy,
they add a special flavour to food and provide a lubricating action to body tissues. In recent
years, their association with different human diseases and their adulteration have become a
health problem for people. A variety of cooking oils are commonly used in different parts of
the country. The major sources are groundnut oil (14,00,000 tonnes), mustard oil (6,00,000
tonnes) and sesame and coconut oil (1,50,000 tonnes). Sunflower oil (1,00,000 tonnes),
safflower oil (25,000 tonnes) and soya bean oil (10,000 tonnes) have also become popular.
Groundnut and sesame oils are common in the west coast and central India; coconut oil in the
south; mustard oil in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa in the east and Kashmir in the north. The annual
per capita consumption of edible oils in the country was about 6 kg in 1984, which is lower
than the world average of 11 kg and the average of 26 kg in developed countries. It is higher
in the high socio-economic status group due to their use of fried preparations. It is however
desirable that the daily intake of fat should not contribute more than 15%-20% calories in the
diet. (from Science Reporter)
Check Your Progress 1
Answer the following questions.
1 Why are edible oils an important part of any diet?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
2 Why have edible oils become a health problem in recent years?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
3 Which social group has a higher per capita consumption of edible oils in India?
Why?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
4 The daily intake of fat in our diet should be
i) less than 20%. ii) more than 20%. iii) around 40%.
40
Choose the correct answer
Check your progress 2
The passage above has a lot of figures. These figures can be understood better if they are
arranged in a table as shown below. Read the passage carefully again, and fill in the gaps in the
table. Do not forget to write the main heading and the subordinate headings where required.
Notes – 1
Name of oil Quantity
(tonnes)
Regions where
used
1 Groundnut oil
2 6,00,000
3 Sesame oil West coast and
central India
4 Coconut oil
5
6
7 10,000
3.2.2 A Passage Giving a Contrastive Description
When you have to take notes from a passage which points out the differences between two
things, it is often most convenient to write the notes in the form of a table.
Read the following passage carefully and take down notes while you read it:
Example 2
The two main kinds of grasslands are tropical grasslands and temperate grasslands. Tropical
grasslands occur in Africa (the savannahs) and in parts of south-eastern Asia, northern
Australia, India and South America. The major temperate grasslands are the North American
prairies, the Russian steppes, the South African veld, the Australian and New Zealand downs
and the South American pampas.
Most tropical grasslands lie between forests and semi-deserts. The annual rainfall, although
confined to one season, is usually high. Savannahs grasslands are dotted with such trees as
acacia and baobab. In moist areas, elephant grass may reach five meters but towards the deserts
it becomes increasingly shorter.
Temperate grasslands have less rainfall than tropical grasslands, and winters that are often
extremely cold and snowy. Trees are rare. Very little of true temperate grassland survives.
Much is now farmland.
The major herbivores found in temperate grasslands are prong-horn, rodents and rabbits.
Coyotes, badgers and snakes are also present and depend on the rodent population for food.
However, herbivores such as bison, prairie chickens, and prairie dogs, as well as predatory
wolves and mountain lions, have become almost extinct, and their range is greatly restricted.
41
The occupation of the prairies and plains by greater numbers of people and domestic livestock
has reduced the number and extent of native animals.
Wild life has been left relatively undisturbed in the tropical grasslands. Wildebeests, zebras,
gazelles, along with predatory lions, hyenas, cheetahs, leopards and other carnivores, share the
plains with numerous species of birds, rodents, and insects.
(Adapted from Carton Atlas of the Earth)
Check your progress 3
Read the passage again and answer the following questions. These questions will help you
understand the passage better.
1 What title would you give the passage?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
2 The temperate grasslands have been indicated by different names in different parts of
the world. Make a table showing the different names of the grasslands and the places
where they are found. Write the appropriate headings. You may refer to Notes 1 to help
you.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
3 Why are the temperate grasslands gradually disappearing?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
4a) Find a word in the passage somewhat similar in meaning to ‘confined’.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………….
b) Find opposites of:
herbivores …………………
survive ………………………
Passages which give a contrastive description can most clearly be presented if they are arranged
in the form of a table. It is, however, not enough that two items are contrasted – in this case the
tropical and temperate grasslands. You should arrange your table in such a way that at a glance
you are able to find out the basis on which the contrast is made. For instance, in the case of
Notes 2 below, the contrast is on the basis of location, rainfall, vegetation, and animals. This
method of organization helps you to present a clearer picture of the information, which will be
useful to you when you have to revise your work later.
Check your progress 4
Read Example 2 again and fill in the gaps in the table below.
Notes – 2
Types of Grassland
Tropical Temperate
1 Location (i) N. America (prairies),
Russia (steppes),
S. Africa (veld),
Australia and New Zealand (downs), and
S. America (pampas)
2 Rainfall High; occurs in one
season
(ii)
3 Vegetation (iii) (iv)
4 Animals Wild life undisturbed;
wildebeests, gazelles,
zebras, lions, hyenas,
cheetahs, and leopards,
birds, rodents, insects
(v)
Notice that we have arranged the notes in the same order in which the information is presented
in the passage given as Example 2. It is, however, not necessary to do this. Often you may have
to arrange the notes in an order different from what it is in the original text. This will probably
happen if you wish to highlight some points.
3.2.3 Passage Presenting Different Aspects of a Topic
When taking notes on different aspects of a single topic, it is often helpful to write them out in
the form of a list or a table. It is then much easier to read and use the information later.
Check your progress 5
Given below is a passage on the Maoris, an aboriginal tribe. Take down notes keeping in view
the following items:
1 location, 2 physical features, 3 houses, 4 food, 5 clothing, 6 entertainment
43
The Maoris
When Cook first visited the islands of New Zealand he found there the people whom
we call Maoris. They had come apparently from more northerly islands to New Zealand,
probably about four centuries earlier, crossing the wide seas in their long double canoes.
They were a tall, well-built people, with brownish skins and long, wavy, black hair.
Though they knew nothing of metals or of the making of pottery, they were skilled
workers in other ways. Their houses were built largely of timber and decorated with
elaborate carving. Near at hand were little patches of garden in which they cultivated
roots for their food. From the forest they brought other roots and berries and birds,
whilst the rivers and seas supplied fish in great abundance. A kind of native flax from
the swamps was woven and used with feathers, grasses, and bark in the making of
clothing. They were also expert basket-makers. They knew nothing of the cultivation
of cereals such as wheat, had no domestic animals, and found few wild ones to hunt.
The families were grouped into clans and tribes which fought fiercely with one another,
each group living in a stockade village in the midst of which was erected a tall look-out
tower. Dancing was a favourite amusement of the women and girls whilst the men
indulged in exciting canoe races.
(from Geography for Today, Book I, The Southern Continents by L. Dudley Stamp,
Longman)
Check your progress 6
You have read the passage carefully and taken notes. Now arrange the notes that you have
taken into a table. You may refer to Notes 2 to help you arrange your notes. After you finish,
compare your notes with the specimen answer given at the end of the unit.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
3.3 ORGANIZATION OF NOTES: DIAGRAMS
When the information in a paragraph can be presented visually, it is better to use a drawing, a
flow chart, or a tree diagram. This is especially true of scientific material, where it is simpler
and clearer to express information in the form of a labelled diagram than by using words only.
The diagram should present a mental picture of what you understand from the paragraph. This
will make it easier for you to understand the information given in the paragraph.
3.3.1 Flow-charts
Example 3
Your purpose in reading the passage below will be to learn about the process of photosynthesis.
Take notes as you read.
Photosynthesis is the process by which chlorophyll-containing organisms – green plants
and algae – capture energy in the form of light and convert it to chemical energy.
Almost all the energy available for life in the earth’s biosphere – the zone in which life
can exist – is made available through photosynthesis.
In the first stage of photosynthesis, chlorophyll absorbs sunlight. Chlorophyll is the
green substance in leaves, which is able to trap the energy of sunlight and use it in the
process of making carbohydrates.
Within the leaf there is a small amount of water. The energy which the chlorophyll has
trapped of the sun is used to split the water in the leaf into hydrogen and oxygen. Most
of the oxygen is released into the air.
In the second stage, the chlorophyll uses the energy absorbed from sunlight to combine
the hydrogen (which is obtained by splitting the water) with carbon dioxide (which the
leaf obtained from the air). Then, after several complicated changes, the hydrogen and
the carbon dioxide are combined in such a way that a carbohydrate is produced. This
carbohydrate is called glucose.
Later, using glucose as its most important building material the plant can make
substances called amino acids and proteins. These chemicals are needed for the growth
of both plants and animals.
Something else happens during photosynthesis that is of the greatest importance to us.
A constant supply of oxygen is released into the air by plants. At the same time, carbon
dioxide, which would poison us if we breathed too much of it, is nearly all used up.
Photosynthesis is one of the most important chemical processes in the world. This is
because it is the primary method of food manufacture, and the primary method of
oxygen manufacture.
(Adapted from Funk and Wagnall’s New Encyclopaedia)
Check your progress 7
Read the passage carefully and answer the following questions.
1 What is the earth’s biosphere?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
2 In the first stage of photosynthesis
i) sunlight causes chlorophyll to turn into carbohydrates.
ii) sunlight causes chlorophyll to split water.
iii) chlorophyll absorbs the energy of the sun and uses it to produce carbohydrates.
(Choose the correct answer.)
45
……………………………………………………………
3 Fill in the gaps with the words that seem most appropriate to you.
In the second stage of photosynthesis, the (i)………………absorbed from
(ii)……………… is used to combine (iii)…………… with carbon dioxide. Then, after
some complicated changes a (iv)……………… called (v)……………… is produced.
4 If the process of photosynthesis stopped, what would happen to animals and human
beings? Why?
………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………….
Check your progress 8
Notes 3 below presents the information taken from Example 3 in the form of a flow chart.
Preparing a flow chart especially for descriptions of processes, will help you to understand the
texts. Later, when you are revising your work, it will be easier to recollect the information if it
is available in a visual form. Fill in the gaps in the flow chart below.
Notes – 3
3.3.2 Tree Diagrams
You already know that different kinds of passages lend themselves to different kinds of
organization when we take notes. Passages that have information of a classificatory nature, for
instance, can be analysed by means of tree diagrams. Such diagrams are useful both in
classifying the information, and presenting it in the right order.
The passage below deals with different modes of transport and their role in commerce. Read
it carefully and take down notes as you read.
Example 4
The Role of Transport in Commerce
The economic system of any country is largely dependent upon the efficiency of its transport
system. Without the help of a good transport system, the expansion in national and international
trade would never take place.
47
Broadly, the means of transport both for purposes of trade and social activity can be classified
into three main divisions, land, water and air. We are, here, concerned with transport for trade.
Of all the forms of transport, road transport has shown the greatest growth in recent years. Road
transport is also used as a complementary means of transport for other types of transport. Roads
are indispensable links for carrying goods and people to and from railway stations, ports and
airports.
Transport by road may be both vehicular and non-vehicular. Non-vehicular transportation
includes both animal and man. Animals such as horses, mules and yaks are frequently used for
carrying goods and passengers in hilly areas. Camel is the only means of transport in desert
areas. Man is also sometimes used to carry goods. In hilly areas, porters and coolies carry goods
on their backs and heads. This type of transport is generally used when animals, carts or
vehicles cannot be used. Vehicular transport in developing countries includes the ancient
bullock carts, as well as the modern automobiles. The invention of the automobiles has been
of great significance to modern industry and commerce because of their high speed and low
cost per kilometre.
The introduction of the railways has been vital in the growth of industrialization. Railways are
useful in carrying heavy and bulky goods over long distances. They are especially favoured
because, unlike other modes of transport, they are unaffected by weather conditions.
Water transport is one of the oldest forms of cargo transport. Though it is slow, it is the cheapest
form of transport. Water transport includes inland transport and ocean transport. Inland
waterways are rivers and canals. While rivers are ‘naturally’ created, canals are artificial
waterways. Inland waterways are not always reliable. Sometimes rivers change their course
abruptly, which may cause dislocation of traffic. In times of drought they may run dry.
Ocean or sea transport is very important for the growth of foreign trade of any country,
especially as it is cheaper than air transport. It is particularly useful for carrying bulky goods
over long distances, especially when time is not the essential factor.
The greatest advantage of air transport is that it has reduced the time and distance barrier to a
great extent. However, air transport is the costliest means of transport because of the high cost
of planes, their operation and maintenance. It is generally used rather sparingly for carrying
light freight
Check your progress 9
1 In what way is road transport a ‘complementary’ means of transport for other types of
transport’?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
2 When is man used as a means of transporting goods?
48
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
3 What types of vehicles do you think are included in the word ‘automobiles’?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
4 Fill in the gaps below
(i)………………. is one of the oldest forms of transport. It is also (ii)……………….
than any other means of transport. Water transport includes both (iii)……………….
and (iv)………………. transport
5 What are some of the disadvantages of inland waterways as a means of transport?
………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………….
6 Read the passage on water transport again. Then organize your notes in the form of a
tree diagram. Some help is provided for you.
7 What is the advantage and disadvantage of air transport?
……………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………..
Check your progress 10
Notes 4 below (based on Example 4) are organized into a tree diagram. Fill the gaps to complete
the tree diagram.
3.3.3 Other Diagrams
Besides flow charts and tree diagrams, there are other kinds of diagrams as well which are used
to summarize the written material. Descriptive passages on scientific topics or passages which
show processes can sometimes lend themselves to such diagrams. You must realize that this is
not a common note-taking technique. Only when you feel that a diagram will help you
understand and memorize a piece of information better, is it wise to use it.
Read the passage below on ‘The Atmosphere’ carefully and take notes as you read along.
Example 5
The Atmosphere
Although we cannot see it, taste it, or smell it, the air that surrounds the earth is vital
for life. It provides the gases needed for human, animal and plant life. Of these gases,
oxygen makes up about 21 per cent and nitrogen about 78 per cent of the volume of dry
air. Other gases, such as argon, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, neon, krypton and xenon,
comprise the remaining one per cent. The amount of water vapour and its variation in
amount and distribution is of great importance in weather changes. The atmosphere has
no definite upper limits, but gradually thins until it becomes imperceptible. However,
the atmosphere has three well-defined layers. The layer of air next to the earth, which
extends upwards for about ten miles, is known as the troposphere. Most of the air and
water vapour are in the troposphere. It is the warmest part of the atmosphere because
most of the solar radiation is absorbed by the earth’s surface, which warms the air
immediately surrounding it. The temperature decreases by about 11.2 C for every mile
as one travels upwards through the troposphere. Most of the features that govern our
weather, including most clouds and wind systems, occur in the troposphere. Strong
winds moving at more than 160 kms an hour are located at the upper levels of the
50
troposphere. These are known as JETSTREAMS and are important to pilots of jet
aircrafts who fly in this zone.
Above the troposphere to a height of about 50 miles is a zone called stratosphere. The
stratosphere is separated from the troposphere by a zone of uniform temperatures called
the tropo pause. Within the lower portions of the stratosphere is a layer of ozone gases
which filters out most of the ultraviolet rays from the sun. If this zone was not there,
the full blast of the sun’s ultraviolet light would harm our skins, blind our eyes, and
eventually result in our destruction. Within the stratosphere, the temperature and
atmospheric composition are relatively uniform.
The ionosphere extends to a height of 300 miles above the earth. The air here, is
extremely rarefied. It is called the ionosphere, because it consists of electrically charged
particles called ions thrown from the sun. The northern lights (aurora borealis) originate
within this highly charged portion of the atmosphere. Its effect upon weather
conditions, if an, is as yet unknown.
(Adapted from Caxton Atlas of the Earth)
Check your progress 11
1 Read the passage again and state whether the following statements are true (T)
or false (F).
i) The major gases in the atmosphere are nitrogen and oxygen. ( )
ii) The distribution of gases in the atmosphere is of vital importance for changes
in the weather. ( )
iii) The warmest part of the atmosphere is the stratosphere. ( )
iv) Features that affect weather conditions are found in the troposphere. ( )
v) In the troposphere, the temperature is relatively stable. ( )
vi) If the ozone layer is destroyed or damaged, gradually all life on earth will be
destroyed ( )
vii) The air in the ionosphere is extremely thick ( )
2 Fill in the gaps with suitable words/phrases.
The atmosphere is a region of gases (i)……………….. the earth. It is divided into
(ii)…………..layers. The (iii)……….. is called the troposphere. It extends upwards
(iv)……..…… The (v)…………… is called the stratosphere and it extends to a height
(vi)…………… The presence of (vii)……….….. in the (viii)….……….. of the
stratosphere prevents the (ix)…………… of life .(x)………….. the stratosphere is
the(xi)……..……
Check your progress 12
Given below is a diagrammatic representation of the atmosphere. Put the correct labels on the
diagram. Then summarize the information given in the passage as shown in the diagram.
3.4 LET US SUM UP
In the first unit on note-taking, we described the technique of note-taking in terms of the
organization of notes into headings and subordinate points. In this unit we have discussed the
organization of notes in the form of tables, charts and diagrams. We have also suggested that
different kinds of material lend themselves to different techniques of note-taking.
3.5 ANSWERS
Check your progress 1
1 because they are a source of energy, add flavour to food, and provide a lubricating
action to body tissues.
2 mainly because they are often adulterated and have in recent years also been associated
with some diseases.
3 the group that has a higher socio-economic status. This group uses more
fried preparations.
4 i) less than 20%.
52
Check your progress 2
Notes – 1
Name of oil Quantity
(tonnes)
Regions where used
1 Groundnut oil 14,00,000 West coast and Central
India
2 Mustard oil 6,00,000 Bengal, Bihar, Orissa,
Kashmir
3 Sesame oil 1,50,000 West coast, Central India
4 Coconut oil and southern India
5 Sunflower oil 1,00,000
6 Safflower oil 25,000 No particular region
7 Soybean oil 10,000
Check your progress 3
1 Temperate and Tropical Grasslands
2 Notes 2
Name of Grasslands Places where found
Prairies
Steppes
Veld
Downs
Pampas
North America
Russia
S. Africa
Australia and New Zealand
S. America
3 because they are being turned into farmlands.
4a) restricted
4b) carnivores, becomes extinct
Check your progress 4
i) Africa, parts of S.E Asia, N. Australia, India and S. America
ii) less. (winters cold and snowy)
iii) acacia and baobab trees – esp. in Savannahs; elephant grass
iv) trees rare; not much grassland now – mostly turned into farmland
iv) several animals now extinct. Coyotes, badgers, snakes, pronghorns, rodents,
and rabbits are the main animals found.
Check your progress 6
Notes – The Maoris
Details
1 Country New Zealand
2 Physical features Tall, well-built, brown skin, long,
wavy black hair
3 Houses Made of timber with fine carving
4 Food Roots, berries, birds and fish
5 Clothing Flax from swamps, woven and used
with feathers, grasses and bark
6 Entertainment Women and girls: dancing,
Men: canoe races
Check your progress 7
1 the zone in which life can exist
2 (iii) chlorophyll absorbs the energy of the sun and uses it to produce carbohydrates.
3 i) energy, ii) sunlight, iii) hydrogen, iv) carbohydrate, v) glucose
4 They would die, because there would be too little oxygen in the atmosphere.
Check your progress 8
i) water, ii) Hydrogen, iii) C02 (Carbon dioxide), iv) glucose, v) amino acids, vi) proteins
Check your progress 9
1 Roads are important links for carrying goods and people to and from railway stations,
ports and airports.
2 When other forms of transport, such as animals, carts or vehicles, cannot be used. This
generally happens in hilly areas, where porters and coolies carry goods on their backs
or heads.
3 cars, vans, buses, trucks
4 i) water transport
ii) cheaper
iii) inland
v) ocean
5 Inland waterways are not always reliable. For example, rivers may change their course
abruptly which may cause dislocation of traffic. In times of drought, they may become
dry.
6 i) ocean ii) canals iii) rivers
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7 The advantage is that we can save time and goods can be sent to places much faster.
The disadvantage is that it is the costliest means of transport because of the high cost
of planes, their operation and maintenance.
Check your progress 10
i) water, ii) air, iii) vehicular, iv) bullock carts, v) automobiles, vi) man, vii) inland,
viii) rivers, ix) canals
Check your progress 11
1 i) T, ii)F, iii) F, iv) T, v) F, vi) T, vii) F
2 i) surrounding
ii) three
iii) layer of air next to the earth
iv) for about 10 miles
v) next layer
vi) of about 50 miles
vii) ozone gases
viii) lower portions
ix) destruction
x) Above
xi) ionosphere
Check your progress 12
i) The Earth
ii) Troposphere
iii) Tropo pause
iv) Stratosphere: extends to a height of about 50 miles above the earth. Ozone gases present
in lower portions; temperature and atmospheric composition stable.
v) Ionosphere: extends to about 300 miles above the earth; air thin; effect on weather
conditions unknown.
UNIT 4 MAKING EFFECTIVE SUMMARIES
Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Paragraph, Precise and Summary
4.3 Writing Summaries
4.3.1 The Art of Condensation
4.3.2 Identifying the Topic Sentence
4.3.3 Identifying the Key Ideas
4.3.4 Identifying the Main Claim and Supporting Arguments
4.5 Techniques of Summarizing
4.6 Let Us Sum Up
4.7 Suggested Reading
4.8 Answers
4.0 OBJECTIVES
In this unit we shall take up passages and show you how they can be summarized. This unit
will help you write summaries of passages by giving you practice in:
• separating essential from non-essential ideas,
• separating details from ideas,
• removing repetition or restatement making use of grammatical features to determine
the importance of the ideas being presented,
• giving importance to the words which link sentences and ideas, and
• becoming aware of how ideas in a passage are systematically linked to each other.
After you have worked through the unit, you should be able to perform all the tasks indicated
above and write effective summaries.
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Of all the writing we have discussed so far, note making and summary writing may well be the
ones you are most expected to do in your academic life as a student and as a researcher.
In fact, we are summarizing information all the time. We watch a movie and tell our friends
the story in two minutes, we listen to long conversations and say, “So what you are actually
saying is…” Think of a long newspaper report running into three columns, but with a neat fiveword headline which summarizes the entire report. Summaries may involve one or two key
words, a line, or it may be quite an elaborate write-up. It all depends on the purpose of the
writing.
Why do we summarize what we read? Most often we summarize what others have said. We
use this material for future reference. It forms an essential part of our preparation for an exam,
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a class discussion, a presentation, writing of projects, research papers and term papers. In this
unit we will look at ways in which we can condense information in a long text.
As students, you are expected to read and remember large amounts of prose. In many of your
college courses, you are probably able to memorize facts and key statements with relative ease,
but at times you are expected to go a step further, i.e., read critically and closely so as to present
the argument or information of an article in as cogent a form as possible and in your own words.
In order to demonstrate that you have understood the main idea of a text you must be able to
paraphrase, summarize, and even compose a precis of the text.
4.2 PARAGRAPH, PRECISE AND SUMMARY
Let us first explain these three terms – paraphrase, precis and summary.
To paraphrase is to rewrite something using different words without changing the original
meaning: this is what is usually meant by the phrase, ‘in your own words.’ The paraphrase is
usually clearer and more easily understood than the original, and is usually similar in length to
the original. The purpose of a paraphrase is to convey the meaning of the original message and,
in doing so, to prove that we have understood the passage well enough to restate it in our own
words.
The precis is derived from the word ‘precise’. A precis usually reduces the length of the original
passage by at least two-thirds. Every important idea must be retained, preferably in the order
in which it appears in the original.
A summary is much shorter than the original text, and communicates the main idea of the text
and the supporting points written again ‘in one’s own words’. The summary should give
someone who has not read the original a clear and accurate overview of the text. Writing a
summary therefore requires a combination of précis writing ability and the ability to
paraphrase.
4.3 WRITING SUMMARIES
4.3.1 The art of condensation
One of the skills required to write precis and summaries is using concise language. Before
practicing writing summaries, let us look at how we can say and write sentences in brief.
Writers often load their prose with extra words or phrases that do not seem to add to the
meaning of the sentence. Although such words and phrases are meaningful in the appropriate
context, they can easily be left out. We can eliminate these unnecessary word and phrases.
For instance:
– Completing the project proposal by June 10 is an impossibility without some kind of
extra help.
– For all purposes, American industrial productivity generally depends on
certain factors that are really more psychological in kind than of any
given technological aspect.
A more concise version is:
– Completing the project proposal by June 10 is impossible without help.
– American industrial productivity depends more on psychological than
on technological factors.
A single word can sometimes replace a phrase. Therefore, we can convert phrases into single
words whenever possible. Often, adjectival or adverbial phrases can be replaced with a single
adjective or adverb. For example:
– He is never late and is always on time.
He is punctual.
– The employee with ambition … (= the ambitious employee)
– The department showing the best performance … (= The bestperforming department…)
– The company buys compressors from other countries (= The company
imports compressors).
– Do you think you are incapable of making mistakes? (= Do you think you
are infallible?)
Check Your Progress 1
A. Find single words for the phrases in italics and rewrite the sentences making appropriate
changes wherever necessary.
i. The company buys compressors from other countries.
ii. The theory can be checked to see whether it is true and accurate.
iii. Jack is a person who can do many different things. He is quite talented.
iv. The man is expected to become the next CEO of the company.
v. Pollution can make his asthma become unpleasant and worse.
vi. The case resulted in a court decision that he was not guilty.
vii. The company decided to officially settle the disagreement between the two state
government offices.
viii. He thought his theory did not have any mistakes.
Using a clause to convey meaning that could be presented in a phrase or even a word
contributes to wordiness. We can therefore convert modifying clauses into phrases or
single words where possible.
– The report, which was released recently … (= the recently released report)
– All applicants who are interested in the job must … (all job applicants)
– The system that is most efficient and accurate … (=the most efficient and accurate
system)
Writing that focuses directly on a point and maximizes meaning with minimum wordiness
tends to be both clear and concise. Revising for clarity of meaning often makes the writing
more concise. Read this sentence:
58
– The cause of the failure of our schools to teach basic skills is not understanding
the influence of cultural background on learning.
Now read the revised sentence:
– Our schools fail to teach basic skills because they do not understand how
cultural backgrounds influence learning
Check Your Progress 2
Rewrite the sentences to make them more concise.
1 My suggestion is that we make alteration in the length of the cloak.
2 Everything today has the requirement of the conformity of people to some standard.
3. A revision of the programme will result in increase in our efficiency in the servicing of
our customers.
4. Many engineering personnel have made comments regarding a lack of knowledge
about what new information is available in the library, as literature is filed into the
library without any sort of notification.
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
……………………
When we combine ideas and sentences in a clause, we reduce the length of the sentence and
text significantly. Read these two versions:
A. There is a beautiful park near my house. The name of the park is Tian-Tan Park. This
was built several hundred years ago. It is the biggest park in Beijing. The Tian-Tan Park
is famous not only for its beauty but its quietness as well. (46 words).
B. Near my house stands Tian-Tan, the biggest park in Beijing, built several hundred years
ago and is now famous not only for its beauty but its peaceful atmosphere too. (28
words)
However, it is better to write short sentences that are correct and well formulated than long
sentences that are harder to understand.
4.3.2 Identifying the topic sentence
A paragraph is a group of sentences related to a particular topic, or central theme. Every
paragraph has a key concept or main idea. The main idea is the most important piece of
information the author wants you to know about that paragraph. A writer will state his/her main
idea explicitly somewhere in the paragraph. That main idea may be stated at the beginning of
the paragraph, in the middle, or at the end. The sentence in which the main idea is stated is the
topic sentence of that paragraph.
Read the passage below:
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For many years people have wished they could fly through the air like birds. Skydivers
have found a way to fly without a machine. They jump from an airplane and fall at the
rate of 120 miles an hour. The fall is so smooth that they don’t feel like they’re moving
at all. When they pull the ripcord on their parachute they float the rest of the way to the
ground.
Which sentence in the paragraph do you think summarizes the text best?
a) Skydivers have found a way to fly without a machine.
b) The fall is so smooth that they don’t feel like they’re moving at all.
c) For many years people have wished they could fly through the air like birds.
d) They jump from an airplane and fall at the rate of 120 miles an hour.
It is (a). The other sentences (b, c, and d) just elaborate what these ways of flying without a
machine are. The topic sentence announces the general theme of the paragraph. Although the
topic sentence may appear anywhere in the paragraph, it is usually in the beginning. The last
sentence of a paragraph can also contain the topic sentence, it is likely to be a concluding
sentence. It is used to sum up a discussion, to emphasize a point, or to restate all or part of the
topic sentence so as to bring the paragraph to a close. It can fall in the middle of a paragraph
as well, especially when a paragraph begins with an introductory sentence that is meant to grab
your attention.
In order to find the topic sentence the best thing to do is ask yourself the question, “What is
this about?” Keep asking yourself that question as you read a paragraph, until the answer to
your question becomes clear.
Check Your Progress 3
Study these paragraphs and identify the topic sentence in each of them.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Text 1: Today, boys try to prove they are men in many different ways. Long ago, it was not
hard for some boys to know they had become men. American Indians had ceremonies and tests
for boys to prove they were men. In one tribe, boys were given drugs which made them see
visions of the gods. Having a vision was the first step towards being a man. In another tribe,
boys had to prove that they could stand pain. They had to lie still on ground covered with ants
and let the ants bite them again and again. When the Indian boys had been through these
ceremonies and tests, they knew they were men.
The topic sentence of this paragraph is:
a) Today, boys try to prove they are men in many different ways.
b) In another tribe, boys had to prove that they could stand pain.
c) They had to lie still on ground covered with ants and let the ants bite them again and
again
60
d) When the Indian boys had been through the ceremonies and tests, they knew they were
men.
Text 2:The rules of conduct during an examination are clear. No books, calculators or papers
are allowed in the test room. Proctors will not allow anyone with such items to take the test.
Anyone caught cheating will be asked to leave the room. His or her test sheet will be taken.
The incident will be reported to the proper authority. At the end of the test, all materials will
be returned to the proctor. Failure to abide these by rules will result in a failing grade for this
test.
The topic sentence of this paragraph is:
a) The rules of conduct during an exam are clear.
b) No books, calculators or papers are allowed in the test room.
c) Anyone caught cheating will be asked to leave the room.
d) Failure to abide these by rules will result in a failing grade for this test.
4.3.3 Identifying the Key Ideas
Any piece of writing is made up of a few key (or main) ideas. However, if all a writer did was
to put these forward briefly and concisely, few – if any – readers would be able to fully grasp
the writer’s meanings, or be able to see the significance and implications of what he or she has
to say. Consequently, writers tend to explain, extend, or ‘flesh-out’ what they think and say by
including examples and evidence that lead the reader through the piece to make it more
understandable.
As a reader, our job is to grasp these key ideas or items of information; to understand the
essential points in a text. One useful technique to help you do this effectively is for you to
highlight the key ideas. Underlining key ideas will help you focus your attention on what
you are reading.
When you are selecting ideas from a passage, ask yourself the following question: If this idea
were omitted, would the fundamental meaning of the passage be changed?
Newspaper headlines are the best precis that we see around us. News headlines generally
present the main idea very succinctly and clearly. Read the news item below and say which of
the headlines best summarizes it.
New York, May 31 (AP): A pink cocktail dress
worn by Audrey Hepburn in “Breakfast
at Tiffany’s” was auctioned for
$192,000 (euro143,000) – more than six times its
estimated value.
The sleeveless dress, worn for the scene in
which Holly Golightly discovers her brother has
died, sold Wednesday to a private European buyer
at Christie’s sale of film and entertainment
memorabilia. The auction house said it
had expected the dress to sell for up to
$30,000 (euro22,000).
“The sale was filled with iconic pieces”, said Helen
Hall, Christie’s head of entertainment memorabilia.
“It captured people’s imagination”.
Hall said the auction house was pleased with the
results of the sale, which brought in $1.2 million
(euro890,000).
1. Audrey Hepburn’s
dress bought by a
European buyer.
2. Dress worn by
Audrey Hepburn
auctioned for
$192,000
3. A Private
European buyer pays
$192,000 for a dress
4. The dress
Audrey Hepburn wore
in “Breakfast at
Tiffany’s”
Which of these do you think is a suitable headline? To find this out, read the news item and,
ask yourself ‘What is the main idea?’ It is definitely about a dress Audrey Hepburn wore in one
of her films. It is also about the sale of her dress. It is about the huge price at which it was
bought. The rest – who bought it and why – is important but not necessarily the main idea of
the news item. Therefore, the answer is (2).
Check Your Progress 4
Read this passage and do the tasks that follow.
Computer games have been extremely popular for decades now and almost every
household has at least one computer. However, it can be seen that playing these games
causes social, educational and personal problems of several kinds both to youngsters
and society. Firstly, youngsters who spend a great deal of time in front of a monitor are
not playing sport. As a result, they are more likely to be overweight and less healthy,
so more prone to diseases such as diabetes. In addition, the games themselves are often
quite violent which add to many problems such as the lack of interaction and social
skills with their friends and relatives. If we wish children to grow up to become welladjusted members of society, these games should be more tightly controlled.
i. Identify the topic sentence.
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
1. Audrey Hepburn’s
dress bought by a
European buyer.
2. Dress worn by
Audrey Hepburn
auctioned for
$192,000
3. A Private
European buyer pays
$192,000 for a dress
4. The dress
Audrey Hepburn wore
in “Breakfast at
Tiffany’s”
New York, May 31 (AP): A pink cocktail dress
worn by Audrey Hepburn in “Breakfast
at Tiffany’s” was auctioned for
$192,000 (euro143,000) – more than six times its
estimated value.
The sleeveless dress, worn for the scene in
which Holly Golightly discovers her brother has
died, sold Wednesday to a private European buyer
at Christie’s sale of film and entertainment
memorabilia. The auction house said it
had expected the dress to sell for up to
$30,000 (euro22,000).
“The sale was filled with iconic pieces”, said Helen
Hall, Christie’s head of entertainment memorabilia.
“It captured people’s imagination”.
Hall said the auction house was pleased with the
results of the sale, which brought in $1.2 million
(euro890,000).
62
………………………………………………………………………………………
ii. Write down the main ideas.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
iii Write a summary which should not exceed 50 words.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………
4.3.4 Identifying the Main Claim and Supporting Arguments
Every essay contains many ideas but the first thing you need to determine is what the central
thesis of the text is. You need to be able to state this claim in a clear and concise manner.
You should skim through each text before reading it carefully and, after skimming, try
to determine the central thesis or claim. Then you will be able to go on to the next step. The
next thing you need to look for is the author’s specific arguments in defence of his or her overall
position (thesis). Usually an author gives more than one argument in favour of his/her thesis.
A text can be seen as the following structure:
Let us look at one such text to explain this structure. Read the following text, it has one main
thesis and three supporting arguments and one conclusion.
63
Text
The government should provide more financial assistance to parents who use childcare.
Childcare centres may assist children in their early development. They give children an
opportunity to mix with other children and to develop social skills a tan early age. A
whole range of learning occurs in childcare centres. Parents and children need to spend
some time apart. Children become less dependent on their parents and parents
themselves are less stressed and more effective care-givers when there are periods of
separation. Recent studies indicate that the parent-child relationship can be improved
by the use of high-quality childcare facilities. Parents who cannot go to work because
they don’t have access to childcare facilities cannot contribute to the national economy.
They are not able to utilize their productive skills and do not pay tax. Government
support for childcare services assists individual families and is important for the
economic prosperity.
Make notes of the main idea and the three arguments in support:
The main idea ……………………………………………………………………………..
The arguments:
1) ………………………………………………………
2) ………………………………………………………
3) ………………………………………………………
The main idea asserts a conclusion – an idea, an opinion, a judgment, or a point of view – that
the writer wants you to accept. The support includes reasons (shared beliefs, assumptions, and
values) and evidence (facts, examples, statistics, and authorities) that give readers the basis for
accepting the conclusion. It is also necessary to identify the type of author’s arguments. We
also need to identify how the author tries to persuade us: by appealing to our reason or intellect
or to our emotions. Please note that even when we summarise, we need to acknowledge the
source.
4.5 TECHNIQUES OF SUMMARISING
Read the passage given below. It talks about natural ways of fertilizing the soil. The method
suggested here is the use of earthworms to freshen the soil. We will now help you summarise this
rather large passage.
Earthworms Back in the Garden
(1) Earthworms are the answer for every garden problem, according to Harold John Weigel.
They can increase crop production, turn and freshen soil, and produce faster growth. Simply
take care of the earthworms, and the earthworms will take care of the garden. Weigel is
extremely enthusiastic about earthworms. They are tremendous creatures,” the intestines of
the Earth.” Weigel says, quoting Charles Darwin.
(2) Weigel is so excited about the benefits of worms that he is writing a book about them. He
gardens using thousands of earthworms. He has persuaded his wife to put worms in her
houseplant pots. He even suggests eating worms which he claims are 70 per cent protein.
He has dreams of armies of earthworms helping to replace topsoil in the country. It is a
64
fact, he says that topsoil is disappearing every year through erosion. Wind and water carry
away the soil, and nature needs centuries to replace it.
(3) Within one year, one thousand earthworms and their descendants can change
approximately one ton of organic matter into one of the highest-yield growing materials
known, according to Weigel. Worms eat organic material and produce what is known as
worm castings. If 1,000 pounds of earthworms are working one acre of land, every twentyfour hours they will produce 1,000 pounds of castings that function as a high-grade topsoil,
Weigel said. They produce the same amount of topsoil in one day that nature could produce
in 700 years through decomposition and erosive forces such as wind and rain.
(4) Planting gardens in worm castings offers plants more than just all the necessary nutrients.
For example, castings are very porous, and water flows easily through them. They are
very absorbent being able to hold water easily. In addition, worms tend to be happiest
around the roots of plants. Water can then flow directly to roots through the worm
channels. The worms’ channels also give air to the plants. Because the worms dig in the
soil, they create a planting area of even consistency. Thus, the earthworms act as natural
ploughs.
(5) Worms offer all these benefits, yet they make few demands. They need only moisture,
darkness, and food from the soil. Weigel gets his information on the benefits of
earthworms from books and from the Worm Growers Association. That little-known
group, which is active in many states, suggests that commercial farmers reintroduce
earthworms in places where they have been killed through the use of synthetic fertilisers
and other gardening chemicals.
(from Zukowsk-Faust, J., Johnston, S.S. and Atkinson, C.S. Between the Lines. Copyright
1983 by Holt, Rinehart and Winston Inc., reprinted by permission of the publisher)
Check your progress 6
1 Reread paragraph 1and draw out the main idea from it. You can begin in this way:
‘Earthworms are the answer for every garden problem’.
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
(Check your answer with that given by us at the end of the unit)
You were expected to complete the above sentence by giving examples of the problems
earthworms can solve, as listed in paragraph 1.
2 Now re-read paragraph 2 and draw out the main ideas from it. You will find that it
contains two main ideas. Write them down here.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
65
Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
The paragraph is about the benefits of worms and the two benefits mentioned here
should be selected for the summary. If you have chosen anything else, it can only be
about Weigel’s excitement and the usefulness of worms in general. In a summary we
are not much concerned with the views of an individual such as Weigel, but with the facts
themselves. The usefulness of worms in general has already been stated in the summary of
paragraph 1, so that doesn’t need to be repeated.
3 Now re-read paragraph 3 and note down the main points. Choose the most general
statements. Specific examples should not be included unless they also express a general
idea which has not already been stated. Write down your points here.
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
Check your answers with those given at the end.
You will find that a large part of the first and the last sentence expresses the main points. All
references to Weigel are left out. The point regarding worm castings, though important, is not really
necessary for the main argument that runs through the whole piece.
4 Now read paragraph 4. Just select those points that have not already been stated. Choose
adjectives and adjective-like phrases that are used to describe the effect of worms on
the soil. You can begin your sentence this way:
‘Worms make the soil ………………………..
It is not necessary to give all the details even though they are interesting. In a summary you
need basically to provide the main points that are important for the whole passage.
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
Check your answer with that given by us.
5 Now read paragraph 5 and note down the main points. You will notice that this paragraph
deals with the needs of worms. So, first state the three things that they need, starting with
the words:
Worms need only
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………….
66
Another point is also being made here regarding a Worm Growers’ Association which is of interest
in the context. This could also be mentioned. Put in a line about this.
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
Check your answer with that given by us.
Now, if the whole summary we have produced is written up, it will read like this:
‘Earthworms are the answer for every garden problem: they can increase crop production,
turn and freshen soil and produce faster growth. Earthworms, it is claimed, are 70 per cent
protein, so they can be eaten. They can replace the topsoil which is disappearing every year
through erosion. Within one year, 1,000 earthworms and their descendants can change
approximately 1 ton of organic matter into one of the highest-yield growing materials
known. They produce the same amount of topsoil in one day that nature could produce in
700 years through decomposition and erosive forces. Worms make the soil porous,
absorbent and of even consistency. Worms need only moisture, darkness and food from the
soil. A Worm Growers’ Association is active in many states.
Let us look at the summary carefully now to see if any changes are required in order to make
it read like a connected passage. The first part all the way upto … and of even consistency, is
concerned with the function of earthworms. Each point that is being made up to this stage
consists of a statement of yet another function of the earthworms, so no further connecting
words are required.
However, the sentence ‘Worms need only moisture, darkness and food from the soil is
concerned not with the function of worms but with the needs of these worms. It is therefore
necessary to indicate that a different kind of idea is being brought in. A line from the original
passage can be used in order to connect this sentence with the rest of the summary. Let us see
how the summary will read with this addition:
‘… Worms make the soil porous, absorbent and of even consistency. Worms offer all these
benefits, yet they make few demands: they need only moisture, darkness and food from the
soil.’
What about the last sentence of the summary? Does it fit in at that point in the summary? There
is actually no connection between that and the sentence before it. It may perhaps be preferable
to drop the mention of the Worm Growers’ Association.
Notice that the summary does not necessarily follow the sequence of ideas of the original
passage. It may follow the same sequence or it may not. What is important is that a clear line
of argument develops.
Now rewrite the final version of the summary here.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
67
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Check your answer with that given at the end of the Unit.
4.6 LET US SUM UP
The goal of writing a summary of an article, a chapter, or a book is to offer as accurately as
possible the full sense of the original, but in a more condensed form. A summary restates the
author’s main point, purpose, intent, and supporting details in your own words. The process of
summarizing enables you to better grasp the original and the result shows the reader that you
understand it as well. In addition, the knowledge gained allows you to better analyse and
critique the original.
In this unit we have shown you how we can write summaries of the passages we read by looking
for the important ideas in each passage and the relationship between them; and adopting a
proper arrangement for the main points in the summary and linking the various sentences in it
with the use of connectives.
4.7 SUGGESTED READING
J. Zukowski/Faust, S.S. Johnston and C.S. Atkonson: Between the Lines.
4.8 ANSWERS
Check Your Progress 1
1. i. imports ii. verified iii. versatile iv. prospective
v. aggravate vi. acquittal vii. arbitrate viii. infallible
Check Your Progress 2
1. I suggest we alter the length of the cloak.
2. Everything today requires peoples’ conformity to some standard.
3. If we revise the programme, our efficiency in customer service will increase.
5. Many engineers have commented about not being notified when new information is filed in
the library.
Check Your Progress 3
Topic sentences:
Text 1: (a) Today, boys try to prove they are men in many different ways.
Text 2: (d) Failure to abide by these rules will result in a failing grade for this test.
Check Your Progress 4
i. The topic sentence: Playing computer games causes social, educational and personal
problems to youngsters and society and therefore should be controlled.
ii. The main ideas: youngsters stop playing sport – become overweight and less healthy –
more prone to diseases – games may be violent – leads to lack of interaction and social
skills.
iii The summary
Nowadays almost every household has a computer. However, playing them causes social,
educational and personal problems. Children can become overweight and more prone to
diseases. Also, games are often violent and can lead to less interaction with friends and
relatives. Therefore they need to be tightly controlled. (47 words)
Check your progress 5
Main Ideas in ‘Earthworms Back in the Garden’
Paragraph 1: Earthworms are the answer for every garden problem: they can increase crop
production, turn and freshen soil and produce faster growth.
Paragraph 2: Earthworms, it is claimed, are 70 per cent protein, so they can be eaten. They can
replace topsoil which is disappearing every year through erosion.
Paragraph 3: Within one year, 1000 earthworms and their descendants can change
approximately 1 ton of organic matter into one of the highest-yield growing materials known.
They produce the same amount of topsoil in one day that nature could produce in 700 years
through decomposition and erosive forces.
Paragraph 4: Worms make the soil porous, absorbent and of even consistency.
Paragraph 5: Worms need only moisture, darkness and food from the soil. A Worm Growers’
Association is active in many states.
Final Summary of ‘Earthworms Back in the Garden’
Earthworms are the answer for every garden problem: they can increase crop production, turn
and freshen soil and produce faster growth. Earthworms, it is claimed, are 70 per cent protein,
so they can be eaten. They can replace topsoil which is disappearing every year through
erosion. Within one year, 1000 earthworms and their descendants can change approximately 1
ton of organic matter into one of the highest-yield growing materials known. They produce the
same amount of topsoil in one day that nature could produce in 700 years through
decomposition and erosive forces. Worms make the soil porous, absorbent and of even
consistency. Worms offer all these benefits, yet they make few demands: they need only
moisture, darkness and food from the soil.